As members of the armed forces, more than 1.5 million Indians are subject to the military justice system. A legal system designed and implemented to serve the interest of colonial masters after the Mutiny of 1857 is still applicable to this group of Indians in the name of discipline. This book discusses the concepts of ‘justice’ and ‘human rights’, and makes a strong case for the application of these concepts to the armed forces, while maintaining their discipline and operational efficiency. The military justice system is rarely criticised in our country—it is generally ignored under the notion that it relates to a handful of uniformed personnel who volunteer to be governed by it. A natural tendency exists within the armed forces to defend the system, calling it ‘time-tested’. In addition, a veil of secrecy is drawn over military matters.

The highlight of this book is a critical analysis of the existing military justice system in India and its comparison with that of the UK and the USA. Across the world, there is a clear trend of change in the military justice system regarding the rights of the accused and the human rights standards. Some important elements of this change are the independence of judges, the establishment of standing courts, the right to legal representation and increased rights of the accused in terms of electing trial instead of summary procedures. This book points out the deficiencies in the Indian military justice system and argues that limitations on human rights must be provided for by law and should be consistent with international treaty obligations.

Everybody concerned with the military justice system—political leaders, military personnel, social scientists, lawyers and policy makers—should read this book.
 

Contents
Preface ................................................................................................... v
Contents ............................................................................................. xiii
Table of Cases ...................................................................................... xix
CHAPTER 1
The Idea of Justice and the Military Justice System ....................... 1
CONCEPT OF JUSTICE .............................................................................. 3
NOTIONS OF JUSTICE .............................................................................. 8
MILITARY JUSTICE SYSTEM ......................................................................13
HISTORY OF INDIAN MILITARY JUSTICE SYSTEM .......................................18
CHAPTER 2
Constitution of India and the Armed Forces ............................... 23
THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION AND THE ARMED FORCES ............................24
Fundamental Rights ..................................................................25
Article 33 ...................................................................................28
International Law ......................................................................31
Changes in the Military Law in the UK ...................................33
Military Law in the USA ...........................................................34
Constitutional Interpretation ....................................................34
Article 21 of the Constitution ...................................................35
Fundamental Rights and the Military Legal System ................36
CASES RELATING TO ARTICLE 33 ...........................................................42
THE ROLE OF THE LEGISLATURE AND THE SUPREME COURT ...................49
CHAPTER 3
Court-martial: System and Procedure at Trial ............................. 55
PROVISIONS OF COURTS-MARTIAL IN THE INDIAN AIR FORCE
AND THE NAVY .............................................................................58
JURISDICTION OF COURTS-MARTIAL AS TO OFFENCE ................................60
JURISDICTION OF COURTS-MARTIAL AS TO PUNISHMENT ..........................61
SUMMARY PUNISHMENT (OTHER THAN BY A COURT-MARTIAL) .................62
REVIEW OF SUMMARY PUNISHMENT ........................................................63
Important Functionaries of the Court ......................................63
PRE-TRIAL PREPARATION ..........................................................................67
Arrest .........................................................................................67
Investigation and Recording of Summary of Evidence .............68
TRIAL BY COURT-MARTIAL ......................................................................70
Assembly ....................................................................................70
Swearing or Affirmation of Court ..............................................71
Plea in Bar ..................................................................................71
WHEN ACCUSED PLEADS ‘GUILTY’ ..........................................................72
WHEN ACCUSED PLEADS ‘NOT GUILTY’ .................................................73
DEFENCE OF THE ACCUSED...................................................................74
Summing Up .............................................................................76
FINDING AND SENTENCE .......................................................................76
Conviction/Acquittal .................................................................77
Sentence .....................................................................................77
Confirmation and Revision of Finding and Sentence ...............78
Promulgation .............................................................................80
APPEAL/REVIEW OF COURT-MARTIAL DECISIONS ......................................80
PARDON, REMISSION AND SUSPENSION ....................................................82
CHAPTER 4
Comparative Perspective 1: The British Military
Justice System ........................................................................ 85
COURT-MARTIAL .....................................................................................86
Royal Navy ................................................................................86
SERVICE DISCIPLINE ACTS .......................................................................87
THE ROLE OF CONVENING AUTHORITY ..................................................87
REFORM IN THE MILITARY JUSTICE SYSTEM .............................................89
Reforms in 1996 and 2000.......................................................91
The Military Justice System: Specific Issues .............................93
Court-martial Members ............................................................96
Review and Appeal ....................................................................96
Army Legal Services ...................................................................97
Further Reforms ........................................................................97
The Armed Forces Act 2006 .................................................. 103
CHAPTER 5
Comparative Perspective 2: The American Military
Justice System .......................................................................107
MILITARY JUSTICE SYSTEM ................................................................... 111
Administrative Action ............................................................. 111
Non-judicial Punishment (NJP) ............................................ 112
COURT-MARTIAL .................................................................................. 113
Summary Court-martial ......................................................... 113
Special Court-martial ............................................................. 114
General Court-martial (GCM)............................................... 115
Convening Authorities ........................................................... 117
Unlawful Command Influence ............................................... 119
Article 32 Investigations ......................................................... 121
Military Judges ....................................................................... 121
Rights of Accused ................................................................... 122
Right to a Government-Funded Expert ................................. 123
Appeal ..................................................................................... 125
COURTS OF CRIMINAL APPEALS ............................................................ 126
De Novo Review ..................................................................... 126
United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces ........... 126
Review by the Supreme Court ............................................... 127
Updating of Military Justice System ...................................... 127
MILITARY COMMISSIONS ...................................................................... 128
Conviction under Military Commission ................................ 130
CHAPTER 6
Critical Appraisal and Analysis ...................................................135
RIGHT TO FAIR TRIAL ......................................................................... 140
PRE-TRIAL CUSTODY ........................................................................... 145
PROVISIONS RELATING TO ARREST ....................................................... 145
RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED .................................................................. 156
Legal Aid ................................................................................. 156
Judiciary and Legal Aid in India ............................................ 165
LEGAL AID: INDIAN MILITARY JUSTICE SYSTEM ...................................... 167
Respondents’ Opinions .......................................................... 171
Right to Bail ........................................................................... 174
Respondents’ Opinions .......................................................... 176
NON-JUDICIAL PUNISHMENT ................................................................ 177
RIGHT TO ELECTION FOR TRIAL BY COURT-MARTIAL ............................ 188
Statement of Witnesses ........................................................... 188
Pre-trial Information .............................................................. 189
Review of Punishment ............................................................ 189
Right to Appeal ...................................................................... 189
ROLE OF CONVENING AUTHORITY ...................................................... 191
Unlawful Command Influence ............................................... 193
Respondents’ Opinions .......................................................... 208
JUDICIARY OF THE ARMED FORCES ...................................................... 210
Respondents’ Opinions .......................................................... 223
MILITARY TRIBUNALS ........................................................................... 225
SUMMARY GENERAL COURT-MARTIAL (SGCM) ..................................... 226
SUMMARY COURT-MARTIAL (SCM) ....................................................... 228
Respondents’ Opinion on Summary Courts-martial ............. 232
DISCIPLINARY COURT UNDER THE NAVY ACT 1957 ............................. 233
MULTIPLE SYSTEMS OF MILITARY TRIBUNALS ........................................ 234
SENTENCE AND SENTENCING .............................................................. 239
Sentence .................................................................................. 240
Sentencing .............................................................................. 241
Court Members v Judge Advocate .......................................... 243
CRUEL, UNJUST AND DISPROPORTIONATE PUNISHMENT ......................... 248
DISPARITY IN SENTENCING: SENTENCING GUIDELINES ............................ 250
CHAPTER 7
Armed Forces Tribunal...............................................................257
BACKGROUND ..................................................................................... 257
APPELLATE FORUM IN INDIA ................................................................ 262
THE ARMED FORCES TRIBUNAL BILL .................................................... 266
ARMED FORCES TRIBUNAL ACT 2007 .................................................. 268
Composition of the Tribunal .................................................. 269
Jurisdiction of the Tribunal .................................................... 269
Power of the Tribunal ............................................................. 270
Retrial ..................................................................................... 271
Appeal to Supreme Court....................................................... 271
CRITICAL APPRAISAL ............................................................................. 272
Service Matters ....................................................................... 272
CHAPTER 8
Future Reform: Common Code ......................................................
for the Armed Forces ..................................................................279
PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS ........................................................................... 280
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE THREE SERVICES ACTS .............................. 280
NEED FOR UNIFICATION ..................................................................... 282
Uniformity .............................................................................. 282
Joint Deployment................................................................... 282
Future Amendments .............................................................. 282
Operational Effectiveness ....................................................... 283
ARMED FORCES TRIBUNAL ................................................................... 283
NEED FOR A COMMON CODE ............................................................ 287
PLEA BARGAINING ............................................................................... 288
CHAPTER 9
Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................293
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................ 298
Arrest and Custody ................................................................. 298
Right to Counsel .................................................................... 299
Non-judicial Punishment....................................................... 299
Role of Convening Authority ................................................. 299
Judge Advocate General .......................................................... 300
Military Tribunal .................................................................... 301
Sentence and Sentencing ........................................................ 301
Appellate Tribunal .................................................................. 301
Common Code for the Armed Forces ..................................... 301
Bibliography ...................................................................................... 303
Index ................................................................................................. 315

UC Jha is presently a visiting fellow at the Centre for the Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, and a visiting faculty member at a number of law institutions in New Delhi. Dr Jha was invited by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Defence to present his views on the Armed Forces Tribunal Bill 2005. Many of his recommendations were incorporated in the Tenth Report of the Parliamentary Standing Committee submitted to the Parliament. He has worked as a Consultant (Legal) to the National Human Rights Commission, New Delhi for more than three years. He is also a resource person for the International Committee of the Red Cross on International Humanitarian Law. His works, comprising over 50 articles/research papers on matters relating to the armed forces, humanitarian law and environmental law, have been published in various journals and newspapers.
Dr Jha has 24 years of commissioned service to his credit and was a Wing Commander when he took voluntary retirement. He obtained a Ph D degree in law and governance from Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2008, where his dissertation was on the Indian Military Justice System. He also holds master’s degrees in law, life sciences, business administration, defence and strategic studies, with postgraduate diplomas in intellectual property laws, environmental law and international humanitarian law, refugee law and human rights laws.