RA Nelson Indian Penal Code

Nelson’s Indian Penal Code is a Nelson’s Indian Penal Code is a comprehensive Criminal Law catageory and outstanding exposition of the Indian Penal Code. The current edition is a synthesis of analytical and critical comments on the provisions of the Code,presented in an orderly and lucid manner. The latest trends and developments in the law of crimes, statutory changes and updated case law have been incorporated in this edition, thus making it exhaustive and useful. Further, the provisions and principles of law have been expounded with reference to the facts of decided cases making it a comprehensive and reliable reference. In keeping with the times, the author has incorporated various disciplines, such as Medical Jurisprudence, Forensic Sciences, Toxicology, Serology, Ballistics, Criminology and Penology, which further enhance the utility of the book comprehensive Criminal Law catageory and outstanding exposition of the Indian Penal Code. The current edition is a synthesis of analytical and critical comments on the provisions of the Code,presented in an orderly and lucid manner. The latest trends and developments in the law of crimes, statutory changes and updated case law have been incorporated in this edition, thus making it exhaustive and useful. Further, the provisions and principles of law have been expounded with reference to the facts of decided cases making it a comprehensive and reliable reference. In keeping with the times, the author has incorporated various disciplines, such as Medical Jurisprudence, Forensic Sciences, Toxicology, Serology, Ballistics, Criminology and Penology, which further enhance the utility of the book

Preface ................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments .................................................................................. ix
Preface to the Ninth Edition .................................................................. xi
Preface to the Eighth Edition .................................................................. xv
Preface to the Fourth Edition ...............................................................xvii
Contents .............................................................................................. xix
Table of Cases ................................................................................... lxxxi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction .................................................................................. 1
1. Title and extent of operation of the Code
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ................................................................. 2
(2) COMMENCEMENT OF CODE ........................................................ 3
(3) TERRITORIAL EXTENT OF THE ORIGINAL CODE ............................ 3
(4) STRAITS SETTLEMENTS ................................................................ 4
(5) INDIA ........................................................................................ 5
(6) EXTENT OF THE CODE AT PRESENT ........................................... 6
(7) EXTENSION OF CODE TO EXTRA-TERRITORIAL OFFENCES .............. 6
(8) MARITIME TERRITORY ................................................................. 7
(9) TITLE ........................................................................................ 9
(10) TITLE OF CHAPTER ..................................................................10
(11) PREAMBLE ................................................................................10
(12) PREAMBLE ELUCIDATED—INTENTION OF LEGISLATION ................13
(13) CONSOLIDATION AND CODIFICATION—MEANING .......................14
(14) CRIMINAL LAW BEFORE THE COMMENCEMENT
OF THE CODE ....................................................................15
(15) REPORTS OF COMMISSIONERS AND COMMITTEES ........................15
(16) QUOTATION FROM REPORT NOT A LEGITIMATE GUIDE ...............16
(17) PROCEEDINGS IN PARLIAMENT ....................................................17
(18) STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS .....................................18
(19) HEADINGS ................................................................................20
(20) MARGINAL NOTES ....................................................................21
(21) ILLUSTRATIONS .........................................................................22
(22) PROVISO ..................................................................................23
(23) NON-OBSTANTE CLAUSE ...........................................................24
(24) EXPLANATION ...........................................................................24
(25) SCHEDULE TO ACT...................................................................25
(26) PUNCTUATION ..........................................................................25
(27) REPEAL ....................................................................................26
(28) SAVING CLAUSE .........................................................................27
(29) GENERAL RULES OF INTERPRETATION .........................................27
(30) CONSTRUCTION OF PENAL STATUTES .........................................30
(31) RETROSPECTIVE EFFECT ............................................................34
(32) ENGLISH LAW AS AID TO INTERPRETATION..................................35
(33) MENS REA IN THE CASE OF STATUTORY OFFENCES ...................37
(34) INVESTIGATION AND TRIAL OF OFFENCES UNDER
THE CODE .........................................................................37
2. Punishment of offences committed within India .............................38
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES................................................................39
(2) SCOPE OF THE SECTION ...........................................................39
(3) ‘EVERY PERSON’ .......................................................................40
(4) JURIDICAL PERSON ....................................................................41
(5) FOREIGNER ...............................................................................42
(6) THE KING ...............................................................................43
(7) PRESIDENT AND GOVERNORS OF STATES ....................................43
(8) FOREIGN SOVEREIGNS ................................................................44
(9) AMBASSADORS ...........................................................................44
(10) DIPLOMATIC AGENTS ................................................................44
(11) IMMUNITIES EXTENDED TO FAMILY MEMBERS OF
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS ...........................................................46
(12) ALIEN ENEMIES ........................................................................46
(13) PUBLIC SERVANTS ......................................................................47
(14) MEN-OF-WAR ...........................................................................47
(15) TWO THEORIES ON JURISDICTION IN INTERNATIONAL LAW..........47
(16) ‘AND NOT OTHERWISE’ ............................................................48
(17) ‘ACT OR OMISSION’ .................................................................49
(18) ‘CONTRARY TO THE PROVISIONS THEREOF’ ................................49
(19) ‘OF WHICH HE SHALL BE GUILTY’ ...........................................50
(20) VICARIOUS LIABILITY FOR ACTS OF OTHERS—
GENERAL RULE ...................................................................50
(21) ‘WITHIN INDIA’ ........................................................................53
(22) ABETMENT IN INDIA OF OFFENCE BEYOND ...............................54
(23) TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION ........................................................55
(24) JURISDICTION OVER OFFENCES COMMITTED AT SEA ...................55
(25) INDICTABLE OFFENCES ..............................................................57
3. Punishment of offences committed beyond, but which
by law may be tried within India. ..............................................58
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ...............................................................58
(2) SCOPE ......................................................................................59
(3) COMPETENCY OF STATE TO LEGISLATE FOR TRIAL
AND PUNISHMENT FOR OFFENCES COMMITTED
BEYOND INDIA ....................................................................59
(4) ‘LIABLE, BY ANY INDIAN LAW, TO BE TRIED’ .............................61
(5) OFFENCE COMMITTED BY A FOREIGN NATIONAL IN
FOREIGN VESSEL ..................................................................61
(6) PRESUMPTION AGAINST EXTRA-TERRITORIAL OPERATIONS OF
STATUTES .................................................................................62
(7) PROCEDURE IN SUCH CASES ......................................................62
4. Extension of Code to extra-territorial offences ...............................63
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ...............................................................64
(2) SCOPE ......................................................................................65
(3) CLAUSE (1): OFFENCE COMMITTED BY A CITIZEN OF INDIA
WITHOUT AND BEYOND INDIA ............................................66
(4) CITIZENS OF INDIA...................................................................66
(5) OFFENCE COMMITTED BY A FOREIGNER OUTSIDE INDIA .............67
(6) CLAUSE (2): OFFENCE COMMITTED ON SHIP OR
AIRCRAFT REGISTERED IN INDIA ............................................68
(7) OFFENCE COMMITTED BY A FOREIGN NATIONAL IN A
FOREIGN VESSEL ..................................................................68
(8) PROCEDURE IN CASE OF OFFENCES OUTSIDE INDIA ....................68
(9) EXTRADITION ...........................................................................69
(10) FOREIGN STATES .......................................................................70
(11) OFFENCE OF A ‘POLITICAL CHARACTER’ ....................................71
(12) EXTRADITION OFFENCES ...........................................................71
(13) FUGITIVE OFFENDERS ................................................................71
(14) EXTRA-TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION ..............................................72
(15) FORM OF CHARGE ....................................................................72

5. Certain laws not to be affected by this Act ....................................73
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ...............................................................73
(2) SCOPE OF THE SECTION ...........................................................74
(3) PROVISIONS FOR PUNISHING MUTINY AND DESERTION ...............74
(4) MEANING OF SPECIAL LAW AND LOCAL LAW .............................75
(5) SPECIAL AND LOCAL LAW MAY CO-EXIST ...................................75
(6) SIMPLE RULE OF INTERPRETATION OF THE INDIAN PENAL
CODE 1860 AND OTHER CRIMINAL LAWS ............................75
(7) STATUTES CREATING NEW OFFENCE AND STATUTES
ENLARGING AMBIT OF EXISTING OFFENCE .............................76
(8) SAME ACT PUNISHABLE UNDER DIFFERENT ACTS—SPECIAL
LAW PRESCRIBING SMALLER PENALTY WILL APPLY ...................77
(9) APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL LAW TO ACTS REQUIRED BY
PARTICULAR STATUTES ..........................................................78
(10) CONFLICT BETWEEN SPECIAL AND GENERAL ACT .......................78
(11) COMMON LAW POWER TO PUNISH CONTEMPT OF
COURT SAVED .....................................................................79
CHAPTER 2
General Explanations .................................................................. 81
TOPICAL INTRODUCTION ......................................................................81
6. Definitions in the Code to be understood subject
to exceptions ...............................................................................81
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................82
(2) DEFINITIONS ............................................................................83
7. Sense of expression once explained .................................................85
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................85
(2) MEANING OF EXPRESSIONS SAME THROUGHOUT .........................85
8. Gender ............................................................................................86
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................86
9. Number ..........................................................................................87
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................87
10. ‘Man’, ‘Woman’ ..............................................................................87
(1) ‘OF ANY AGE’ .........................................................................87

11. ‘Person’ ...........................................................................................88
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................88
(2) ‘INCLUDES’ ..............................................................................89
(3) QUALIFYING CLAUSE .................................................................89
12. ‘Public’ ...........................................................................................90
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................90
13. Definition of ‘Queen’ .....................................................................91
14. Servant of Government ..................................................................91
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ...............................................................91
(2) ‘SERVANT OF GOVERNMENT’ .....................................................91
15. ‘British India’ ..................................................................................91
16. ‘Government of India’ ....................................................................91
17. ‘Government’ .................................................................................91
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ...............................................................92
(2) ‘GOVERNMENT’ ........................................................................92
18. ‘India’ ..............................................................................................93
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ...............................................................93
(2) TERRITORY OF INDIA ................................................................93
(3) SECTION NOT UNCONSTITUTIONAL ...........................................93
19. ‘Judge’ .............................................................................................94
(1) SCOPE ......................................................................................94
(2) PERSONS WHO ARE JUDGE ........................................................95
(3) PERSONS WHO ARE NOT JUDGE ...............................................97
(4) ‘DEFINITIVE JUDGMENT’ ...........................................................98
(5) ‘LEGAL PROCEEDING’ ................................................................98
(6) ACT 10 OF 1859—ILLUSTRATION (A) .....................................98
(7) REGULATION VII OF 1816 ......................................................99
20. ‘Court of Justice’ .............................................................................99
(1) ‘COURT OF JUSTICE’ ................................................................99
(2) THE TEST OF A JUDICIAL TRIBUNAL ....................................... 101
(3) DISTINCTION BETWEEN COURT AND A QUASI-JUDICIAL
TRIBUNAL ......................................................................... 101

21. “Public Servant” ......................................................................... 102
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ............................................................ 106
(2) SCOPE AND EFFECT OF AMENDMENT ..................................... 106
(3) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................... 107
(4) ‘PUBLIC SERVANT’ .................................................................. 108
(5) STATUTORY PUBLIC SERVANTS .................................................. 112
(6) CLAUSE 2—COMMISSIONED OFFICERS IN MILITARY, NAVAL
OR AIR FORCES ................................................................ 115
(7) CLAUSE 3—‘EVERY JUDGE’ .................................................... 115
(8) MEANING OF ‘OFFICER’ ........................................................ 115
(9) DISTINCTION BETWEEN OFFICE AND EMPLOYMENT ................. 117
(10) CLAUSE 4—OFFICERS OF A COURT OF JUSTICE, LIQUIDATOR,
RECIEVER, COMMISSIONER, ETC ........................................ 118
(11) CLAUSE 5—JURYMEN, ASSESSORS AND PANCHAS ...................... 120
(12) CLAUSE 6—ARBITRATORS AND COMMISSIONERS ....................... 120
(13) CLAUSE 7—PERSONS EMPOWERED TO PLACE OR KEEP
ANY PERSON IN CONFINEMENT ......................................... 120
(14) CLAUSE 8—OFFICERS PREVENTING OFFENCES, ETC ................. 121
(15) CLAUSE 9—OTHER OR MISCELLANEOUS OFFICERS OF
THE GOVERNMENT .......................................................... 121
(16) RAILWAY SERVANT .................................................................. 123
(17) CLAUSE 10—TO TAKE, RECEIVE, KEEP OR EXPAND ANY
PROPERTY, ETC ................................................................ 125
(18) CLAUSE 11—PERSONS CONNECTED WITH ELECTIONS ............ 127
(19) CLAUSE 12—A PERSON MAY BE IN THE PAY WITHOUT
BEING THE SERVANT OF HIS PAY MASTER ......................... 127
(20) CLAUSE 12(A)—NATURE OF OFFICE, EXALTED OR HUMBLE,
NOT MATERIAL ................................................................ 128
(21) CLAUSE 12(B)—‘PERSONS IN THE SERVICE OR PAY OF A
LOCAL AUTHORITY’ ............................................................... 130
(22) OFFICE BEARERS AND EMPLOYEES OF A
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY ..................................................... 132
(23) CIVIL SERVANTS ON DEPUTATION WITH A
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY ..................................................... 133
(24) CORPORATION ‘ESTABLISHED’ UNDER THE ACT—EXPLAINED .... 133
(25) ‘PERSON’ IN THE SERVICE OR PAY OF A CORPORATION ........... 133
(26) ‘GOVERNMENT COMPANY’ ..................................................... 134
(27) EMPLOYEES OF BANKS ........................................................... 135
(28) EMPLOYEES OF INSURANCE COMPANIES ................................... 136
(29) MEDICAL OFFICER ACTING AS AUTHORISED
MEDICAL ATTENDANT ...................................................... 136
(30) ADVOCATES ENGAGED BY GOVERNMENT ................................. 137
(31) PERSONS HELD NOT TO BE PUBLIC SERVANTS ........................ 137
(32) ILLUSTRATION TO TWELFTH CLAUSE ....................................... 140
(33) EXPLANATION 1 ..................................................................... 141
(34) EXPLANATION 2 ..................................................................... 141
22. ‘Movable property’ ...................................................................... 142
(1) DEFINITION OF MOVABLE PROPERTY DIFFERS FROM ONE
GIVEN IN OTHER CENTRAL ACTS ...................................... 142
(2) STANDING TREE, GROWING CROP, FISH, ELECTRICITY, ETC ....... 143
(3) PROPERTY ............................................................................. 144
(4) ‘EXCEPT LAND AND THINGS ATTACHED TO THE EARTH’ ......... 145
(5) MEANING OF THE EXPRESSION ‘ATTACHED TO EARTH’ ............ 145
23. “Wrongful gain” .......................................................................... 146
(1) ‘WRONGFUL GAIN’ AND ‘WRONGFUL LOSS’ ............................ 146
(2) THERE MUST BE GAIN OR LOSS ............................................ 147
(3) THE PERSON LOSING SHOULD BE LEGALLY ENTITLED TO
SUCH PROPERTY ................................................................ 148
(4) GAIN OR LOSS MUST RELATE TO PROPERTY ........................... 148
(5) GAIN OR LOSS MUST BE MATERIAL AND NOT REMOTE ......... 149
(6) GAIN OR LOSS MUST BE BY UNLAWFUL MEANS ..................... 150
(7) ACQUISITION, RETENTION AND DEPRIVATION .......................... 152
(8) WRONGFUL LOSS OR GAIN COVERS TEMPORARY LOSS OR GAIN 153
(9) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 154
24. ‘Dishonestly’................................................................................ 154
(1) MEANING OF ‘DISHONESTLY’ ................................................. 155
(2) ‘DISHONESTLY’ REFERS ONLY TO PROPERTY ............................ 156
(3) ‘WITH THE INTENTION’ ........................................................ 156
(4) PRIMARY AND NOT THE REMOTE INTENTION MUST
BE LOOKED AT ................................................................ 156
(5) ANTEDATING OF RECEIPT OF USING FORGED RECEIPT IN
LIEU OF LOST GENUINE RECEIPT ...................................... 157
(6) ‘INTENTION’ DISTINGUISHED FROM MOTIVE ........................... 158
(7) INTENTIONS AND NOT MOTIVES ARE MATERIAL .................... 158
(8) INTENTION MUST BE TO CAUSE WRONGFUL GAIN OR
WRONGFUL LOSS .............................................................. 159
(9) WRONGFUL GAIN NEED NOT BE TO THE
ACCUSED HIMSELF ............................................................ 159
(10) PROOF AND PRESUMPTION OF INTENTION .............................. 160
(11) PRESUMPTION IS THAT A PERSON INTENDS TO BRING ABOUT
THE POSSIBLE RESULT OF HIS ACT ................................... 161
(12) CLAIM OF RIGHT AS A DEFENCE ............................................ 162
(13) TEST OF DISHONESTY IS THE MENTAL ELEMENT
OF BELIEF ....................................................................... 163
(14) DISHONEST INTENTION AS AGAINST JOINT PROPERTY .............. 163
25. ‘Fraudulently’ .............................................................................. 163
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 164
(2) DOUBLE MEANING OF FRAUD ................................................ 165
(3) ELEMENTS OF FRAUD ............................................................ 165
(4) DECEIT ................................................................................ 166
(5) MEANS OF DECEIT ............................................................... 166
(6) REPRESENTATION IS ESSENTIAL FOR DECEIT ............................. 167
(7) FALSE REPRESENTATION MUST BE OF FACT AND NOT
OF OPINION .................................................................... 167
(8) INJURY .................................................................................. 167
(9) ‘TO DO A THING’ ................................................................ 169
(10) FRAUD AND FORGERY ............................................................ 169
(11) INTENT TO DEFRAUD ............................................................ 169
(12) NO FRAUD UNLESS THERE IS INTENTION TO DEFRAUD ........... 170
(13) WORDS ‘INTENT TO DEFRAUD’ NOT SYNONYMOUS
WITH ‘INTENT TO DECEIVE’ ............................................ 170
(14) ONLY PRIMARY INTENTION TO BE LOOKED AT ....................... 171
(15) DISTINCTION BETWEEN ‘DISHONESTLY’
AND ‘FRAUDULENTLY’ ....................................................... 172
(16) ILLUSTRATIVE CASES ............................................................... 173
26. ‘Reason to believe’ ....................................................................... 173
(1) ‘REASON TO BELIEVE’ ........................................................... 173
(2) ‘IF HE HAS SUFFICIENT CAUSE’ .............................................. 174
(3) ‘KNOWLEDGE’ AND ‘REASON TO BELIEVE’ ............................. 174
27. Property in possession of wife, clerk or servant ........................... 175
(1) ‘POSSESSION AND CUSTODY’ .................................................. 175
(2) SECTION ABOLISHES DISTINCTION BETWEEN POSSESSION
AND CUSTODY ................................................................. 176
(3) INTERPRETATION OF TERM ‘POSSESSION’ ................................. 177
(4) SECTION NOT APPLICABLE TO OFFENCES UNDER
SPECIAL LAWS ................................................................... 177
(5) ‘WIFE’ .................................................................................. 178
(6) ‘CLERK OR SERVANT’ ............................................................. 178
(7) ‘ON ACCOUNT OF THAT PERSON’ ......................................... 178
(8) DOCTRINE OF POSSESSION CANNOT BE EXTENDED TO
ILLEGAL POSSESSION OF WIFE, SERVANT ............................. 179
(9) JOINT POSSESSION ................................................................. 180
(10) REBUTTABLE PRESUMPTION ABOUT THE POSSESSION OF
HEAD OF FAMILY ............................................................. 180
(11) EXPLANATION ........................................................................ 181
(12) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 181
28. ‘Counterfeit’ ................................................................................ 182
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ............................................................ 182
(2) COUNTERFEIT ........................................................................ 182
(3) ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION .................................................... 183
(4) ‘EXPLANATION 1’—IMITATION NEED NOT BE EXACT .............. 184
(5) DECEPTION IS ONE OF THE INGREDIENTS
OF COUNTERFEITING ........................................................ 184
(6) INTENTION TO DECEIVE ........................................................ 185
(7) ‘EXPLANATION 2’—PRESUMPTION OF INTENTION
IS REBUTTABLE ................................................................. 185
(8) COUNTERFEITING MAY BE INFERRED FROM FACTS AND
CIRCUMSTANCES................................................................ 186
29. ‘Document’ ................................................................................. 186
(1) WHAT IS ‘DOCUMENT’ .......................................................... 187
(2) ‘MATTERS EXPRESSED OR DESCRIBED ON ANY
SUBSTANCE BY LETTERS, FIGURES OR MARKS’ .................... 188
(3) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND INDIAN LAW................... 188
(4) MERE EXPRESSION OF IDEAS DOES NOT CONVERT
WRITING INTO A DOCUMENT ........................................... 189
(5) ‘INTENDED TO BE USED AS EVIDENCE OF THAT MATTER’ ..... 189
29A. ‘Electronic record’ ..................................................................... 189
30. ‘Valuable security’ ........................................................................ 190
(1) ‘VALUABLE SECURITY’ ............................................................. 190
(2) COPY OF A DOCUMENT ........................................................ 190
(3) CANCELLED OR SPENT DOCUMENT ........................................ 191
(4) ‘A DOCUMENT WHICH IS OR PURPORTS TO
BE A DOCUMENT’ ........................................................... 191
(5) DOCUMENTS FOUND TO BE VALUABLE SECURITIES .................. 192
(6) DOCUMENTS NOT FOUND TO BE VALUABLE SECURITY ............ 193
(7) WHAT IS ‘LEGAL RIGHT’ ........................................................ 194
(8) DECREE OR ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER OF COURT ..................... 194
(9) ACCOUNT BOOKS .................................................................. 195
(10) DOCUMENT PURPORTING TO BE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............. 195
31. “A will” ........................................................................................ 196
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 196
32. Words referring to acts include illegal omissions ......................... 197
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 197
(2) ACTION AND NON-ACTION OF HUMAN AGENCY .................... 198
(3) ACTION ................................................................................ 198
(4) NON-ACTION ........................................................................ 199
(5) INTENTIONAL AND NON-INTENTIONAL NON
DOING/OMISSION ............................................................. 199
(6) ‘ACT’ .................................................................................... 200
(7) ‘OMISSION’ ........................................................................... 200
(8) ‘ILLEGAL’ .............................................................................. 201
(9) ILLEGAL OMISSION TO BE JUDGED LIKE ABETMENT ................. 203
(10) MERE CASUAL INADVERTANCE OF DUTY IS NOT
ILLEGAL OMISSION ............................................................ 203
(11) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 204
33. “Act”, “Omission” ....................................................................... 204
(1) MEANING OF ‘ACT’ ............................................................... 204
(2) EFFECT OF SECTIONS 32 AND 33 TAKEN TOGETHER .............. 205
(3) UNINTENTIONAL NON-ACTION ............................................... 206
(4) NEGLIGENCE ......................................................................... 206
(5) A BREACH OF LEGAL DUTY ................................................... 206
(6) TWO FORMS OF CRIMINAL NEGLIGENCE ................................. 207
(7) CRIMINAL LIABILITY DEPENDS ON MENTAL ATTITUDE
TOWARDS CONSEQUENCES OF ACT OR OMISSION .............. 207
34. Acts done by several persons in furtherance of
common intention ................................................................... 207
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 210
(2) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ............................................................ 212
(3) ACTS PARTLY IN JURISDICTION OF ONE COURT AND PARTLY
IN OTHER ....................................................................... 212
(4) PARTIES TO CRIME ................................................................ 212
(5) PRINCIPALS IN CRIME (SECTIONS 34–38) ............................... 213
(6) LIABILITY OF PRINCIPAL OFFENDER NOT
WHITTLED DOWN ........................................................... 214
(7) COMBINATIONS OF PERSONS IN CRIMES .................................. 214
(8) TWO CONDITIONS OF JOINT AND VICARIOUS LIABILITY ........... 215
(9) CONSTRUCTIVE LIABILITY ....................................................... 216
(10) DOER OF FRACTIONAL ACT IS DOER OF ENTIRE ACT .............. 216
(11) PRINCIPLE OF JOINT LIABILITY ................................................ 217
(12) PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE SECTION ..................................... 218
(13) SECTION DOES NOT CREATE SUBSTANTIVE OR
DISTINCT OFFENCE .......................................................... 219
(14) COMMON INTENTION MAY BE INFERRED FROM CONDUCT....... 220
(15) APPLICABILITY ........................................................................ 220
(16) ULTIMATE CRIMINAL ACT ....................................................... 221
(17) SECTION NOT APPLICABLE WITHOUT A
SUBSTANTIVE CHARGE ....................................................... 222
(18) SECTION NOT APPLICABLE IN CASE OF SUDDEN FIGHT ........... 222
(19) TWO ASPECTS OF THE SECTION ............................................ 224
(20) LIABILITY IN CASE OF EXCEEDING THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE
DEFENCE ......................................................................... 224
(21) EFFECT OF SECTIONS 32 AND 34 TAKEN TOGETHER .............. 225
(22) EFFECT OF SECTIONS 33 AND 34 TAKEN TOGETHER ................. 225
(23) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 35 ....................... 226
(24) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 37 ....................... 226
(25) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 38 ....................... 227
(26) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 107
(ABETMENT) .................................................................... 227
(27) WHOLE OBJECT OF SECTIONS 34 AND 114 .......................... 228
(28) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 114 ..................... 228
(29) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34, 120A AND 120B ....... 229
(30) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 149 ..................... 230
(31) SECTIONS 34, 109 AND 120B CONSIDERED TOGETHER ......... 232
(32) SECTIONS 34, 120A AND 149 CONSIDERED TOGETHER ......... 233
(33) BOTH SECTIONS 34 AND 149 MAY OR MAY NOT
APPLY/OVERLAP ................................................................ 234
(34) ‘CRIMINAL ACT’ .................................................................... 235
(35) CRIMINAL ACT IS THE TOTALITY OF THE SERIES OF ACTS ....... 236
(36) ‘DONE BY SEVERAL PERSONS’ ................................................ 238
(37) PARTICIPATION IN ACTION NECESSARY ..................................... 239
(38) MERE PRESENCE MAY AMOUNT TO COMMISSION OF
THE OFFENCE .................................................................. 241
(39) FOR PARTICIPATION NOT PHYSICAL PRESENCE BUT COMMON
CONSENT NECESSARY ....................................................... 241
(40) OVERT ACT NOT NECESSARY ................................................ 242
(41) PARTICIPATION MAY BE OF PASSIVE CHARACTER ...................... 243
(42) CRIMINAL ACT MAY BE ACT OF ONE INDIVIDUAL .................. 244
(43) PRESENCE AT SCENE OF OCCURRENCE—PRESUMPTION
OF PARTICIPATION ............................................................ 245
(44) PRESENCE AT THE SCENE NOT NECESSARY ............................. 246
(45) MERE PRESENCE NOT SUFFICIENT FOR COMMON
INTENTION FOR CRIME ..................................................... 247
(46) CRIMINAL ACT ‘IN FURTHERANCE OF THE COMMON
INTENTION OF ALL’ ......................................................... 248
(47) FOUNDATION OF CONSTRUCTIVE LIABILITY ............................. 249
(48) CRUCIAL TEST OF APPLICABILITY OF
CONSTRUCTIVE LIABILITY .................................................. 250
(49) MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WORDS ‘IN
FURTHERANCE OF’ ........................................................... 251
(50) PRIOR CONCERT AND PREARRANGED PLAN IS
FOUNDATION OF COMMON INTENTION ............................. 251
(51) A DIFFERENT COMMON INTENTION MAY DEVELOP
WHILE COMMITTING THE CRIME ...................................... 253
(52) MEANING OF ‘COMMON INTENTION’ ..................................... 254
(53) COMMON INTENTION IMPLIES PRECONCERT AND
PRE-ARRANGED PLAN ......................................................... 256
(54) COMMON INTENTION MAY DEVELOP ON THE SPOT ............... 257
(55) PRESUMPTION OF COMMON INTENTION .................................. 259
(56) SAME OR SIMILAR INTENTION NOT TO BE CONFUSED
WITH COMMON INTENTION ............................................. 263
(57) DOES ‘COMMON INTENTION’ MEAN MENS REA OR
GUILTY KNOWLEDGE OR INTENTION TO COMMIT
THE PARTICULAR OFFENCE COMMITTED? ........................... 265
(58) APPLICATION OF SECTION 34 TO CASES UNDER
SECTION 304, PART II ..................................................... 267
(59) PROOF REQUIRED FOR APPLICATION OF SECTION 34 ............... 269
(60) DIFFICULTY IN PROCURING DIRECT EVIDENCE TO BE
INFERRED IN MOST CASES ................................................ 271
(61) INFERENCE OF COMMON INTENTION SHOULD BE
A NECESSARY INFERENCE DEDUCIBLE ................................. 272
(62) INFERENCE FROM CONDUCT .................................................. 274
(63) INFERENCE FROM PRESENCE ON SPOT AT THE TIME OF
COMMISSION OF OFFENCE ................................................ 276
(64) PURPOSE OF PRESENCE DETERMINES THE INTENTION .............. 276
(65) INTERFERENCE OF COMMON INTENTION FROM NATURE
OF THE ATTACK .............................................................. 278
(66) APPLICABILITY TO CASES OF THEFTS—PRESUMPTION FROM
POSSESSION OF STOLEN PROPERTY ..................................... 279
(67) COMMON INTENTION—A QUESTION OF FACT ....................... 280
(68) ‘EACH OF SUCH PERSONS IS LIABLE FOR THAT ACT’ ............... 281
(69) EXTENT OF LIABILITY ............................................................ 281
(70) LESSER SENTENCE IN CERTAIN CASES ...................................... 282
(71) NECESSITY OF MENTIONING SECTION 34 IN CHARGE—EFFECT
OF OMISSION ................................................................... 283
(72) OMISSION TO MENTION SECTION 34 IN CHARGE CANNOT
AFFECT THE CASE UNLESS PREJUDICE IS SHOWN ................ 284
(73) BELATED PLEA OF JUVENILE AFTER FRAMING OF CHARGE ........ 286
(74) CHARGE UNDER SECTION 34—CONVICTION FOR
SUBSTANTIVE OFFENCE SIMPLICITER .................................... 286
(75) APPELLATE OR REVISIONAL COURT CAN APPLY
SECTION 34 ..................................................................... 286
(76) SUBSTITUTION OF CHARGE UNDER SECTION 34 FOR
CHARGE UNDER SECTION 149—PERMISSIBILITY ................. 287
(77) SUBSTITUTION OF THE CHARGE UNDER SECTION 149
FOR CHARGE UNDER SECTION 34—
DIVERGENT VIEWS ........................................................... 288
(78) CONVICTION UNDER SECTION 302 READ WITH
SECTION 34 CAN BE ALTERED TO ONE UNDER
SECTION 326 READ WITH SECTION 149 .......................... 288
(79) CONVICTION UNDER SECTION 304/34 CAN BE
ALTERED UNDER SECTION 326/34 ................................... 289
(80) EFFECT OF ACQUITTAL OF SOME ACCUSED ON
CONVICTION OF OTHERS ................................................. 289
(81) WHEN ACQUITTAL OF OTHER ACCUSED IS
NOT MATERIAL ................................................................ 291
(82) IN EVALUATING EVIDENCE THE HIGH COURT IS FREE
TO REACH ITS OWN CONCLUSION WIHOUT
DISTURBING ACQUITTAL .................................................... 292
35. When such an act is criminal by reason of its being
done with a criminal knowledge or intention .......................... 294
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 294
(2) CRIMINAL FACTS MAY BE OFFENCES OF TWO KINDS .............. 295
(3) OVERLAPPING OF SECTIONS 34 AND 35 ................................. 296
(4) ‘ACT WHICH IS CRIMINAL’ ..................................................... 296
(5) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34–35 .............................. 297
36. Effect caused partly by act and partly by omission ..................... 297
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 297
37. Co-operation by doing one of several acts constituting
an offence ................................................................................. 298
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 299
(2) SECTION COMMENCES WITH CERTAIN ASSUMPTIONS ................ 299
(3) ‘WHOEVER INTENTIONALLY CO-OPERATES’ .............................. 299
(4) CO-OPERATION MAY BE BY ACTIVE PARTICIPATION OR A
PASSIVE ONE .................................................................... 300
(5) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34 AND 37 ....................... 300
38. Persons concerned in criminal act may be guilty
of different offences ................................................................. 300
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 301
(2) RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE COMPLETED ACT MAY BE OF
DIFFERENT GRADES .......................................................... 301
(3) PRINCIPLE OF SECTION 38 APPLIES TO OFFENCES UNDER
SECTION 149................................................................... 302
(4) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTION 34 AND SECTION 38 ........... 302
39. ‘Voluntarily’ ................................................................................. 302
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 303
(2) DEFINITION OF ‘VOLUNTARILY’ .............................................. 303
(3) INTENTION AND KNOWLEDGE MAY BE EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED ..................................................................... 305
(4) MEANS OF COMMITTING CRIME ............................................ 305
(5) CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY DEPENDS ON MENTAL
ATTITUDE TOWARDS CONSEQUENCES OR DEGREE
OF NEGLIGENCE .............................................................. 305
(6) THREE STATES OF MIND CONSTITUTE VOLUNTARY
ATTITUDE TOWARDS CONSEQUENCES ................................. 306
(7) THREE FORMS OF MENS REA ................................................ 307
(8) PROVISIONS OF CODE RELATING TO RASHNESS
AND NEGLIGENCE ............................................................ 308
(9) INTENTION AND KNOWLEDGE OF CONSEQUENCES .................. 308
(10) INTENT AND KNOWLEDGE OF LIKELIHOOD—LAW
COMMISSIONERS’ VIEW ..................................................... 310
(11) ‘REASON TO BELIEVE’ ........................................................... 310
(12) ‘LIKELY’ ................................................................................ 310
40. ‘Offence’ ...................................................................................... 310
(1) ‘DEFINITION’: ITS HISTORY AND SCOPE .................................. 311
(2) OFFENCES UNDER SPECIAL OR LOCAL LAW ............................. 313
(3) DEFINITION OF ‘OFFENCE’ IN OTHER ENACTMENTS ............... 313
(4) CLAUSE 1 ‘THING MADE PUNISHABLE BY THE CODE’ ............. 314
(5) THINGS PUNISHABLE AND PREVENTIVE REMEDIES .................... 315
(6) CERTAIN PROVISIONS ARE NOT OFFENCES ............................... 315
(7) ATTEMPT TO COMMIT OFFENCE, IF AN OFFENCE ................... 315
(8) CONTEMPT OF COURT AND TECHNICAL OFFENCES .................. 316
(9) CLAUSE 2 AND CHAPTER 4 .................................................... 316
(10) SPECIAL OR LOCAL LAW ......................................................... 316
(11) CLAUSE 2 AND SECTION 109 ................................................ 317
(12) CLAUSE 3 AND SECTION 216 ................................................ 317
(13) PRESUMPTION THAT MENS REA IS AN INTEGRAL PART
OF A STATUTORY OFFENCE ............................................... 317
(14) NO CONVICTION WITHOUT PROVING MENS REA UNLESS
PROVIDED OTHERWISE ...................................................... 318
41. ‘Special Law’ ................................................................................ 318
(1) SCOPE AND DEFINITION OF ‘SPECIAL LAW’ ............................. 318
(2) SPECIAL LAW CONTEMPLATED IN SECTIONS 40 AND 41 ........... 320
(3) SPECIFIC PUNISHMENT TAKES PRECEDENCE OVER GENERAL
PUNISHMENT .................................................................... 320
(4) SIMPLE RULE OF INTERPRETATION........................................... 321
(5) SPECIAL LAWS ........................................................................ 321
42. ‘Local law’ .................................................................................... 321
(1) LOCAL LAW ........................................................................... 322
(2) LAW DOES NOT NECESSARILY INCLUDE RULES
MADE THEREUNDER ......................................................... 322
43. ‘Illegal’, ‘Legally bound to do’ ..................................................... 322
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 323
(2) DISTINCTION BETWEEN ‘UNLAWFUL’ AND ‘ILLEGAL’ ................ 323
(3) ‘WHICH IS PROHIBITED BY LAW’ ............................................ 324
(4) ‘WHICH FURNISHES GROUND FOR A CIVIL ACTION’ ................ 324
(5) ‘LEGALLY BOUND TO DO’ ..................................................... 324
44. ‘Injury’ ......................................................................................... 325
(1) SCOPE AND MEANING OF ‘INJURY’ ......................................... 325
(2) SOCIAL BOYCOTT, IF AMOUNTS TO INJURY .............................. 327
(3) INJURY TO WIDOW BY CAUSING DEATH OF HER HUSBAND ..... 327
(4) ‘PROPERTY’ ........................................................................... 328
45. ‘Life’ ............................................................................................ 328
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 328
46. ‘Death’ ......................................................................................... 329
47. ‘Animal’ ....................................................................................... 329
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 329
48. ‘Vessel’ ......................................................................................... 329
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 329
49. ‘Year’, ‘Month’ ............................................................................. 330
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 330
(2) COMPUTING PERIOD OF SENTENCE OF IMPRISONMENT ............ 331
50. ‘Section’ ....................................................................................... 331
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 331
51. ‘Oath’ ........................................................................................... 332
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 332
(2) ‘SOLEMN AFFIRMATION’ .......................................................... 333
(3) OBJECT OF OATH ................................................................. 333
(4) STATUTORY PROVISIONS RELATING TO OATHS
AND AFFIRMATIONS ........................................................... 334
(5) ADMINISTRATION OF OATH TO CHILD WITNESS ..................... 336
(6) OMISSION DOES NOT INVALIDATE PROCEEDINGS ..................... 337
(7) OBJECT OF OATH AND EFFECT OF OMISSION ........................ 337
52. ‘Good faith’ ................................................................................. 337
(1) ‘GOOD FAITH’ IN CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW .......................... 338
(2) DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF DEFINITION OF ‘GOOD
FAITH’ IN GENERAL CLAUSES ACT 1897 ........................... 339
(3) PROPER INQUIRY BEFORE MAKING IMPUTATION ......................... 340
(4) ‘DUE CARE AND ATTENTION’ ................................................ 340
(5) WRITER OF A DEFAMATORY STATEMENT ................................. 341
(6) AURVEDIC DOCTOR ............................................................... 342
(7) MAGISTRATE .......................................................................... 342
(8) POLICE OFFICIALS .................................................................. 343
(9) BANK MANAGER .................................................................... 344
(10) STANDARD OF ‘DUE CARE AND ATTENTION’ .......................... 344
(11) QUESTION OF GOOD FAITH .................................................. 345
(12) BELIEF MUST BE REASONABLE ............................................... 345
(13) BLIND SIMPLE BELIEF IS NOT ENOUGH ................................... 347
(14) SECTIONS 52 AND 79 ........................................................... 347
52-A Harbour .................................................................................... 348
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ............................................................ 348
(2) REASONS FOR THE CHANGE ................................................... 348
CHAPTER 3
Of Punishment...........................................................................351
(1) EVOLUTION OF LEGAL PUNISHMENT ....................................... 351
(2) PUNISHMENT IF MUST FOLLOW CONVICTION .......................... 352
(3) PRINCIPLE AND OBJECT OF PUNISHMENT ................................ 354
(4) QUANTUM OF PUNISHMENT ................................................... 357
(5) SENTENCE TO BE AS LOW AS COMMENSURATE WITH
THE NATURE OF OFFENCE ............................................... 360
(6) OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN AWARDING SENTENCE .................. 363
(7) DESIRABLE PROPORTION BETWEEN THE GRAVITY OF
OFFENCE AND SENTENCE TO BE OBSERVED ...................... 363
(8) SUMMARY .............................................................................. 365
(9) SUSPENSION, REMISSION AND COMMUTATION
OF SENTENCES ................................................................. 367

53. Punishments ................................................................................ 367
(1) FORMS OF PUNISHMENT ........................................................ 368
(2) PUNISHMENT AND PENALTY DISTINGUISHED ............................ 369
(3) PLEA BARGAINING—EARLIER POSITION .................................... 370
(4) CONSIDERATIONS FOR AWARDING PUNISHMENTS ...................... 371
(5) TOTALITY OF FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN AWARDING
PUNISHMENTS ....................................................................... 372
(6) PROPORTION BETWEEN CRIME AND PUNISHMENT .................... 372
(7) CONSIDERATION OF EFFECT OF PUNISHMENT ON
SOCIAL ORDER ................................................................. 373
(8) CLAUSE (1)—‘DEATH’ .......................................................... 374
(9) CLAUSE (2)—IMPRISONMENT FOR LIFE ................................... 379
(10) CLAUSE (4)—IMPRISONMENT ................................................. 381
(11) CLAUSE (5)—FORFEITURE ...................................................... 388
(12) ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FINE
AS A PUNISHMENT ........................................................... 389
(13) WHEN FINE IS PERMISSIBLE AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO
SENTENCE, NO NEED OF IMPRISONMENT .......................... 389
(14) QUANTUM OF FINE ............................................................... 390
53A. Construction of reference to transportation .............................. 392
(1) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ............................................................ 392
(2) SCOPE ................................................................................... 392
54. Commutation of sentence of death ............................................. 393
(1) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................... 394
(2) MEANING OF COMMUTATION ................................................. 394
(3) PRINCIPLE OF THE SECTION ................................................... 394
(4) GROUNDS FOR COMMUTATION OF DEATH SENTENCE .............. 395
(5) WHO CAN MOVE APPROPRIATE GOVERNMENT FOR
COMMUTATION OF SENTENCE ........................................... 395
55. Commutation of sentence of imprisonment for life .................... 396
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 396
(2) POWER OF COURT TO INTERFERE WITH THE MATTER ............ 396
(3) NO DEEMED COMMUTATION UNDER THE LAW ....................... 397
55A. Definition for ‘appropriate Government................................... 397
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 397
(2) ‘MATTERS TO WHICH THE EXECUTIVE POWER OF
THE UNION EXTENDS’ ..................................................... 398
56. Sentence of Europeans and Americans to penal servitude,
proviso as to sentence for term exceeding ten years but
not for life ................................................................................ 400
57. Fractions of terms of punishment ................................................ 400
(1) SCOPE AND OBJECT .............................................................. 400
(2) IMPRISONMENT FOR LIFE MEANS IMPRISONMENT FOR
THE REMAINING NATURAL LIFE ......................................... 401
(3) IMPLICATION OF CONDITIONAL REMISSION OF SENTENCE ........ 402
58. Offenders sentenced to transportation how dealt
with until transported .............................................................. 402
59. Transportation instead of imprisonment ..................................... 403
60. Sentence may be (in certain cases of imprisonment)
wholly or partly rigorous or simple .......................................... 403
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 403
61. Sentence of forfeiture of property ............................................... 404
62. Forfeiture of property, in respect of offenders punishable
with death, transportation or imprisonment ........................... 404
63. Amount of fine ............................................................................ 405
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 405
(2) MATTERS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SENTENCE OF FINE ............. 406
(3) QUANTUM OF FINE ............................................................... 408
(4) FINE ALONE MAY BE SUFFICIENT WHEN OFFENCE
NOT SERIOUS ................................................................... 408
(5) SENTENCE ON TWO OR MORE ACCUSED JOINTLY,
ILLEGAL ........................................................................... 408
(6) PAYMENT OF DAILY FINE ....................................................... 409
(7) RECOVERY OF FINE ............................................................... 409
(8) REFUND OF FINE WHEN CONVICTION REVERSED ................... 409
(9) PAYMENT OF COMPENSATION OUT OF FINE ........................... 409
(10) APPROPRIATION OF FINES PAID ............................................... 410

64. Sentence of imprisonment for non-payment of fine ................... 410
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 411
(2) MEANING OF OFFENCE ......................................................... 412
(3) SECTION NOT APPLICABLE TO CASES UNDER THE
CATTLE TRESPASS ACT 1871 ............................................ 412
(4) ‘PUNISHABLE WITH IMPRISONMENT, AS WELL AS
FINE’, ETC ...................................................................... 412
(5) AWARD OF IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT OF PAYMENT
OF FINE .......................................................................... 413
(6) TERM OF IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT OF PAYMENT
OF FINE .......................................................................... 414
(7) SENTENCE OF IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT OF PAYMENT
OF FINE CANNOT BE MADE TO RUN CONCURRENTLY ....... 414
(8) IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT OF PAYMENT OF FINE IS A
PENALTY AND NOT A SENTENCE ......................................... 415
(9) IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT DOES NOT DISCHARGE
LIABILITY FOR FINE ........................................................... 415
(10) IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT OF PAYMENT OF FINE CANNOT
BE REMITTED BY STATE .................................................... 416
65. Limit to imprisonment for non-payment of fine,
when imprisonment and fine awardable .................................. 416
(1) GENERAL .............................................................................. 417
(2) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 417
(3) SECTION TO BE READ WITH SECTION 30, CODE OF
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 1970 ............................................. 417
(4) MEANING OF OFFENCE ......................................................... 417
(5) IMPRISONMENT NEED NOT BE PROPORTIONATE TO FINE ......... 417
(6) MAXIMUM TERM PERMISSIVE ................................................... 418
66. Description of imprisonment for non-payment of fine .............. 419
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 419
67. Imprisonment for non-payment of fine, when offence
punishable with fine only ........................................................ 419
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 420
(2) SCALE ................................................................................... 420
(3) OFFENCES UNDER LOCAL ACTS .............................................. 421
(4) IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT OF FINE IN THE ABSENCE OF
ANY PROVISION IN THE SPECIAL OR LOCAL ACTS ............... 421

68. Imprisonment to terminate on payment of fine .......................... 421
(1) LEVY OF FINE ....................................................................... 422
(2) EXPIRY OF LIMITATION DOES NOT AFFECT THE LIABILITY
TO UNDERGO IMPRISONMENT ........................................... 422
(3) PUNISHMENT IN DEFAULT IS CO-TERMINOUS WITH
PAYMENT OF FINE ............................................................ 422
(4) SECTION 68 IS INDEPENDENT OF SECTION 70 ....................... 423
69. Termination of imprisonment on payment of proportional
part of fine. .............................................................................. 423
(1) NO REFUND OF FINE EVEN IF FULL IMPRISONMENT
UNDERGONE .................................................................... 423
(2) ‘LEVY’ OF FINE .................................................................... 423
(3) PUNISHMENT IN DEFAULT IS CO-TERMINOUS WITH
PAYMENT OF FINE ............................................................ 424
70. Fine leviable within six years or during imprisonment—
Death not to discharge property from liability ........................ 424
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 424
(2) THIS SECTION APPLICABLE TO FINES IMPOSED BY NYAYA
PANCHAYATS .......................................................................... 425
(3) PROCEDURE FOR REALISATION OF FINE ................................... 425
(4) SECTION 68 IS INDEPENDENT OF THIS SECTION ..................... 425
(5) WRITTEN OFF FINE CAN ALSO BE RECOVERED ....................... 425
(6) NO TIME LIMIT FOR COMPLETING RECOVERY
PROCEEDING PRESCRIBED ................................................... 426
(7) UNLESS STAYED, LIMITATION RUNS FROM THE SENTENCE
PASSED BY TRIAL COURT .................................................. 426
(8) WHETHER IMPRISONMENT IN DEFAULT DISCHARGES
LIABILITY FOR FINE ........................................................... 427
(9) RECOVERY ONLY WHEN SPECIAL REASONS EXIST FOR IT ......... 428
(10) DEATH DOES NOT DISCHARGE LIABILITY ................................ 428
(11) PROPERTY LIABLE ................................................................... 429
71. Limit of punishment of offence made up of
several offences ......................................................................... 429
(1) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................... 431
(2) SCOPE OF THE SECTION ........................................................ 434
(3) RULE OF LAW CONTAINED IN THE SECTION ........................... 435
(4) A SEPARATE SENTENCE FOR EACH CONVICTION ....................... 436
(5) CONTINUITY OF TIME, PLACE, PERSON AND COMMODITY ....... 437
(6) NO DISTINCTION BETWEEN SENTENCE AND PUNISHMENT....... 438
(7) THIS SECTION AND SECTION 26, GENERAL CLAUSES
ACT 1897 ....................................................................... 438
(8) THIS SECTION AND SECTION 31 CODE OF CRIMINAL
PROCEDURE 1973 ............................................................ 439
(9) THIS SECTION IS TO BE READ WITH SECTIONS 31 AND 220,
CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 1973 ............................. 439
(10) FIRST PARAGRAPH ................................................................... 441
(11) OFFENCE UNDER THIS CODE AND UNDER SPECIAL LAW .......... 445
(12) HOUSE-BREAKING TO COMMIT THEFT..................................... 445
(13) CRIMINAL TRESPASS AND MURDER .......................................... 445
(14) ADULTERY AND ENTICING FOR ILLICIT INTERCOURSE ............... 446
(15) STEALING AND KILLING AN ANIMAL ....................................... 446
(16) ATTEMPT AND ABETMENT ..................................................... 446
(17) FORGERY AND FRAUDULENT DESTRUCTION OF
DOCUMENT ..................................................................... 446
(18) ABETMENT OF THEFT AND RECEIVING STOLEN PROPERTY ....... 446
(19) ABDUCTION WITH INTENT TO RANSOM AND PUTTING
A PERSON IN FEAR OF DEATH IN ORDER TO
COMMIT EXTORTION ........................................................ 447
(20) ASSAULTING PUBLIC SERVANTS ................................................. 447
(21) THIRD PARAGRAPH: ACTS CONSTITUTING SEVERAL DISTINCT
OFFENCES WHEN COMBINED CONSTITUTE A
DIFFERENT OFFENCE ........................................................ 447
(22) RIOTING AND HURT ............................................................. 448
(23) RIOTING AND CRIMINAL TRESPASS—SECTIONS 147 AND 447,
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 .............................................. 449
(24) RIOTING AND USING CRIMINAL FORCE—SECTIONS 147
AND 353 ........................................................................ 449
(25) DACOITY AND MURDER ........................................................ 450
72. Punishment of person guilty of one of several offences,
the judgment stating that it is doubtful of which ................... 450
(1) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................... 450
(2) SCOPE AND OBJECT .............................................................. 451
(3) REQUISITE DOUBT ................................................................. 452
(4) THIS SECTION, SECTIONS 221(1) AND 354(2), CODE OF
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 1973 ............................................. 453
(5) ALTERNATIVE CHARGE CANNOT BE FRAMED IN RESPECT OF
AN OFFENCE UNDER THE PENAL CODE AND AN
OFFENCE UNDER A SPECIAL LAW ....................................... 453
(6) CONVICTION FOR DOUBTFUL OFFENCES ................................. 453
73. Solitary confinement ................................................................... 454
(1) PRINCIPLE AND SCOPE OF THE SECTION ................................. 454
(2) IT IS A SUBSTANTIVE PUNISHMENT ......................................... 455
(3) WHEN CAN SOLITARY CONFINEMENT BE ORDERED ................. 455
(4) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SOLITARY CONFINEMENT UNDER
THIS CODE AND SEPARATE AND CELLULAR
CONFINEMENT UNDER PRISONS ACT .................................. 456
(5) SUMMARY TRIAL AND SOLITARY CONFINEMENT ........................ 456
74. Limit of solitary confinement ...................................................... 458
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 458
75. Enhanced punishment for certain offences under
Chapter XII or Chapter XVII after previous conviction .......... 459
(1) OBJECT AND PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE SECTION ................. 460
(2) SCOPE ................................................................................... 461
(3) CONSIDERATION FOR APPLICABILITY ......................................... 462
(4) PROVISIONS OF THE SECTION ARE ONLY PERMISSIVE
AND NOT OBLIGATORY .................................................... 464
(5) REQUIREMENT OF ENHANCED PUNISHMENT—
LIMITATION OF COURT ..................................................... 465
(6) ‘HAVING BEEN CONVICTED’—CONVICTION MUST BE
UNDER PENAL CODE ........................................................ 466
(7) ‘BY A COURT IN INDIA’ ......................................................... 467
(8) CONVICTION BY COURT-MARTIAL ........................................... 467
(9) PREVIOUS CONVICTION MUST BE FOR OFFENCES UNDER
CHAPTER 12 OR 17 ......................................................... 468
(10) SUMMARY TRIAL ..................................................................... 469
(11) MAGISTRATE’S DUTIES AND POWERS ....................................... 470
(12) PROCEDURE FOR ENHANCED PUNISHMENT .............................. 471
(13) FORM OF CHARGE ................................................................. 472
(14) EFFECT OF OMISSION TO STATE PREVIOUS CONVICTION .......... 474
(15) SENTENCE ON CHARGE OF PREVIOUS CONVICTION NOT
TO BE SEPARATE .............................................................. 475
(16) CHARGE OF PREVIOUS CONVICTION MAY BE ADDED AT
ANY TIME BEFORE SENTENCE ............................................ 475
(17) SECTION 54, EVIDENCE ACT DOES NOT BAR PROOF OF
PREVIOUS CONVICTIONS .................................................... 477
(18) JURISDICTION—SECTION 29 OF THE CODE OF CRIMINAL
PROCEDURE 1973 AND SECTION 75 OF THE INDIAN PENAL
CODE 1860—PUNISHMENT IN EXCESS OF HIS POWERS
CANNOT BE AWARDED BY THE MAGISTRATE ...................... 478
(19) DESERVING CASES MAY BE COMMITTED TO THE COURT
OF SESSION ...................................................................... 478
(20) AUTOMATIC ENHANCED PUNISHMENT NOT ALLOWED .............. 478
(21) A MERE CONVICTION NOT SUFFICIENT FOR HEAVY
PUNISHMENT .................................................................... 479
(22) EFFECT OF SECTION ON COMPOUNDABLE OFFENCES .............. 480
CHAPTER 4
General Exceptions ....................................................................481
(1) TOPICAL INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 482
(2) GENERAL EXCEPTIONS ARE APPLICABLE TO SPECIAL
OR LOCAL LAW ................................................................ 482
(3) TWO PARTS OF SUBSTANTIVE CRIMINAL LAW .......................... 482
(4) CHAPTER FOUR DEALS WITH MENTAL ELEMENT IN CRIMES .... 483
(5) EVENTS OF MORE INJURIOUS CHARACTER AND CONNECTED
WITH HUMAN AGENCY BECOME SUBJECT
OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION ............................................ 483
(6) FIRST STEP—WAS THE EVENT THE CONSEQUENCE
OF GIVEN CONDUCT ....................................................... 485
(7) SECOND STEP—CAN THE CONDUCT BE JUSTIFIED
OR EXCUSED .................................................................... 485
(8) THIRD STEP—WAS THE ACCUSED UNCONSCIOUS AT
THE TIME ........................................................................ 486
(9) GROUND OF NON-LIABILITY—MENTAL ELEMENT WANTING
NO MENS, THEREFORE NO MENS REA ............................. 486
(10) UNCONSCIOUSNESS IS ACTUAL OR VIRTUAL ............................ 487
(11) SLEEP AND SOMNAMBULISM .................................................... 487
(12) INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD (SECTIONS 82–83) ...................... 487
(13) ACCIDENT OR ACCIDENTAL CONSEQUENCES (SECTION 80) ...... 488
(14) INSANITY OR UNSOUNDNESS OF MIND (SECTION 84) ............ 488
(15) INTOXICATION (SECTIONS 85–86) ......................................... 489
(16) ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 489
(17) EVIDENCE—BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................ 490
(18) BURDEN TO PROVE THE EXISTENCE OF GENERAL
EXCEPTION IS ON THE ACCUSED ...................................... 492
(19) ONUS CAN BE DISCHARGED IN TWO WAYS ............................ 493
(20) BURDEN OF PROVING INSANITY AND UNSOUNDNESS
OF MIND ........................................................................ 493
(21) MOTIVE ............................................................................... 494
(22) DOCTRINE OF MENS REA ..................................................... 494
(23) MENS REA AND NEGLIGENCE ................................................ 494
76. Act done by a person bound, or by mistake of fact
believing himself bound, by law .............................................. 494
(1) RELATIVE SCOPE OF SECTIONS 76–79 ................................... 495
(2) SECTIONS 76, 79, 80 AND LEGISLATIVE INTENT IN GENERAL
EXCEPTIONS ..................................................................... 496
(3) SPECIAL IMPORTANCE FOR MILITARY AND POLICE ACTING
UNDER COMMANDS .......................................................... 496
(4) LIKE CIVILIANS, SOLDIERS ARE SUBJECT TO ORDINARY LAW ...... 496
(5) LEGAL POSITION OF A SOLDIER WHEN MILITARY AND
CIVIL LAWS CONFLICT ...................................................... 497
(6) INDEMNITY UNDER INDIAN LAW—CRPC,
SECTIONS 129–32 ........................................................... 497
(7) PRIVATE PERSONS ASSISTING THE POLICE AND MAGISTRATE ...... 498
(8) ESSENTIALS OF MISTAKE ........................................................ 498
(9) MISTAKE AS A DEFENCE UNDER SECTIONS 76 AND 79 .......... 499
(10) REASONABLE MISTAKE ........................................................... 499
(11) MISTAKE OF LAW .................................................................. 499
(12) PRESUMPTION THAT EVERY ONE KNOWS THE LAW .................. 500
(13) MISTAKE AS TO CRIMINAL AND CIVIL LAW ARE TREATED
DIFFERENTLY ......................................................................... 501
(14) BONAFIDE MISTAKE OF LAW ENTITLES ACCUSED THE
LOWER SENTENCE ............................................................. 501
(15) MISTAKE OF FACT ................................................................ 501
(16) TWO ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS FOR SECTIONS 76, 79 .............. 503
(17) MIXED QUESTION OF LAW AND FACT ................................... 503
(18) SUPERSTITIOUS AND QUASI-RELIGIOUS BELIEFS .......................... 504
(19) ‘GOOD FAITH’ ...................................................................... 504
(20) CONDUCT MUST BE LAWFUL UNDER THE SUPPOSED STATE
OF THINGS ...................................................................... 505
(21) ‘BOUND BY LAW’ .................................................................. 506
(22) WRONGS RENDERED CRIMES BY REASON OF SOME
INDEPENDENT FACT .......................................................... 507
(23) INTENTION OF THE LEGISLATURE TO BE DECIDED BY THE
COURT IN EACH CASE ...................................................... 508
(24) MASTER AND SERVANT .......................................................... 509
(25) ACT DONE BY SUBORDINATE UNDER INSTRUCTIONS OF
HIGHER AUTHORITY .......................................................... 509
(26) COMMISSION OF SUICIDE BY SUBORDINATE ON DEPARMENTAL
ACTION BY HIGHER AUTHORITY ........................................ 510
(27) MISTAKE AS DEFENCE TO BE DETERMINED ACCORDING
TO PROVISIONS OF THE CODE ......................................... 511
(28) RULES REGARDING JUSTIFICATION OF OFFENCE
DUE TO MISTAKE ............................................................ 511
77. Act of Judge when acting judicially ............................................. 512
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 512
(2) PROTECTION EXTENDS TO EVEN ORAL REMARKS .................... 513
(3) JUDGE ................................................................................... 513
(4) MISTAKE MAY BE ONE OF LAW ............................................ 514
(5) ‘ACTING JUDICIALLY’ .............................................................. 514
(6) WITHIN JURISDICTION ............................................................ 514
(7) NATURE OF THE ACTS PROTECTED ........................................ 515
(8) CIVIL IMMUNITY .................................................................... 515
(9) GOOD FAITH ........................................................................ 515
78. Act done pursuant to the judgment or order of Court ................ 515
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 516
(2) MISTAKE MAY BE ONE OF LAW ............................................ 516
(3) ‘COURT OF JUSTICE’ ............................................................. 516
(4) ‘JUDGMENT OR ORDER’ ........................................................ 516
(5) ‘NO JURISDICTION’ ................................................................ 517
(6) EXECUTION OF LAWFUL ORDER MAY BECOME UNLAWFUL ....... 517
(7) GOOD FAITH ........................................................................ 517
(8) SANCTION FOR PROSECUTION, WHEN NECESSARY .................... 517
79. Act done by a person justified, or by mistake of fact
believing himself justified, by law ........................................... 517
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 518
(2) SECTIONS 76, 79, 80 AND LEGISLATIVE INTENT IN
GENERAL EXCEPTIONS ....................................................... 519
(3) RELATIVE SCOPE OF THIS SECTION AND SECTION 132,
CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 1973—THE
TWO PROVISIONS ARE NOT IDENTICAL .............................. 520
(4) APPLICABILITY OF THIS SECTION TO OFFENCES UNDER
SPECIAL OR LOCAL LAWS ....................................................... 520
(5) MISTAKE OF FACT ................................................................ 521
(6) MISTAKE OF LAW .................................................................. 521
(7) GOOD FAITH ........................................................................ 522
(8) MISTAKE AS A DEFENCE UNDER SECTIONS 76 AND 79 .......... 522
(9) TWO ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS FOR SECTIONS 76 AND 79 ....... 522
(10) ACTS JUSTIFIED BY LAW ......................................................... 522
(11) ACTS NOT JUSTIFIED BY LAW................................................. 523
(12) NORMAL AND ABNORMAL LAW ............................................... 523
(13) MARTIAL LAW—JUSTIFICATION OF ACTS DONE DURING
TIME OF WAR ................................................................. 525
(14) COMMISSION OF SUICIDE BY SUBORDINATE ON
DEPARTMENTAL ACTION BY HIGHER AUTHORITY ................ 526
80. Accident in doing a lawful act ..................................................... 526
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 527
(2) INGREDIENTS ......................................................................... 528
(3) SECTIONS 76, 79, 80 AND LEGISLATIVE INTENT IN
GENERAL EXCEPTIONS ....................................................... 528
(4) PRIMORDIAL REQUIREMENT ..................................................... 528
(5) ACCIDENT OR MISFORTUNE ................................................... 529
(6) ELEMENTS OF NON-LIABILITY UNDER SECTION 80 ................. 530
(7) ‘WITHOUT ANY CRIMINAL INTENTION OR KNOWLEDGE’ ......... 530
(8) THE CONSEQUENCES MUST BE PURELY ACCIDENTAL—
PLEA OF ACCIDENT IS NEGATIVED BY NEGLIGENCE ........... 531
(9) CARE AND CAUTION .............................................................. 532
(10) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 532
(11) CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE .................................................. 533
(12) COMMISSION OF SUICIDE BY SUBORDINATE ON
DEPARTMENTAL ACTION BY HIGHER AUTHORITY ................ 534
81. Act likely to cause harm, but done without criminal
intent, and to prevent other harm ........................................... 534
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 535
(2) CHOICE OF EVILS, OR COMPULSION BY NECESSITY ................ 536
(3) MOTIVE AS A JUSTIFICATION OF HARM .................................. 536
(4) THE THREE ESSENTIALS OF THE SECTION .............................. 537
(5) MOTIVE ‘FOR THE PURPOSE OF PREVENTING OR
AVOIDING OTHER HARM TO PERSON OR PROPERTY’ .......... 537
(6) KNOWLEDGE AND INTENTION ................................................ 538
(7) DEMARCATING LINE IS THIN BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE
AND INTENTION .............................................................. 538
(8) DESIRE AND INTENTION ........................................................ 539
(9) PROOF OF MOTIVE ............................................................... 539
(10) ‘GOOD FAITH’ ...................................................................... 540
(11) ‘WITHOUT ANY CRIMINAL INTENTION’ ................................... 540
(12) THEFT .................................................................................. 541
(13) MURDER ............................................................................... 541
(14) DOCTRINE OF MENS REA ..................................................... 543
82. Act of a child under seven years of age ........................................ 550
(1) PRIVILEGE OF INFANCY .......................................................... 550
(2) APPLICABILITY OF SECTION TO OFFENCES UNDER SPECIAL
OR LOCAL LAW ................................................................ 550
(3) EXCEPTION TO THE RULE ..................................................... 551
(4) MASTER LIABLE WHEN AGENT IS BELOW SEVEN ..................... 551
(5) CONSEQUENCES OF THE ARREST OF CHILD ............................ 552
83 Act of a child above seven and under twelve of
immature understanding ......................................................... 552
(1) SCOPE—QUALIFIED PRIVILEGE OF CHILDREN ABOVE SEVEN
AND UNDER TWELVE ....................................................... 552
(2) APPLICABILITY OF SECTION TO SPECIAL OR LOCAL LAWS .......... 553
(3) EVIDENCE REGARDING AGE .................................................... 553
(4) MATURITY OF UNDERSTANDING TO JUDGE THE NATURE
AND CONSEQUENCES OF HIS CONDUCT............................ 554
(5) NO PRESUMPTION AS TO CAPACITY TO COMMIT RAPE ............ 554
(6) BURDEN OF PROOF AS TO MATURITY OF UNDERSTANDING ..... 554
84. Act of a person of unsound mind ................................................ 555
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 557
(2) POSITION OF DEFENCE OF INSANITY IN ENGLAND .................. 561
(3) POSITION OF DEFENCE OF INSANITY IN AMERICA ................... 564
(4) POSITION OF DEFENCE OF INSANITY IN INDIA ........................ 565
(5) GROUND OF EXEMPTION ....................................................... 566
(6) ‘AT THE TIME OF DOING IT’—CRUCIAL POINT OF TIME ....... 568
(7) NO RULE THAT ONCE INSANE ALWAYS INSANE ....................... 569
(8) DIFFERENT EFFECTS OF INSANITY AT THE TIME OF
OFFENCE AND AT THE TIME OF TRIAL ............................. 570
(9) INSANITY IS NOT PER SE A DEFENCE ..................................... 570
(10) MATERIAL CIRCUMSTANCES TO DRAW INFERENCE
REGARDING MENTAL CONDITION ...................................... 572
(11) WHAT IS UNSOUNDNESS OF MIND ......................................... 572
(12) LUCID INTERVALS ................................................................... 576
(13) MERE ECCENTRICITY DOES NOT AMOUNT TO INSANITY ......... 577
(14) HOMICIDAL TENDENCY, IF SIGN OF INSANITY ......................... 578
(15) INTOXICATION MUST BE DISTINGUISHED FROM
UNSOUNDNESS OF MIND ................................................. 578
(16) LEGAL TEST OF INSANITY ...................................................... 578
(17) CONCERN FOR TRIAL COURT AND DUTY OF
INVESTIGATING AGENCY ..................................................... 579
(18) DIFFERENT KINDS OF INSANITY .............................................. 581
(19) CRIME PATTERN OF HOMICIDAL MONOMANIAC VIS-À-VIS
THAT OF ORDINARY CRIMINAL .......................................... 592
(20) WRONG ................................................................................ 594
(21) TWO DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF CAPABILITY OF
KNOWING ILLUSTRATED ..................................................... 596
(22) ‘INCAPABLE OF KNOWING THE NATURE OF THE
ACT’—MEANING ............................................................. 596
(23) THREE GROUNDS FOR EXEMPTION FROM
CRIMINAL LIABILITY ........................................................... 597
(24) INSANITY IS A QUESTION OF FACT ........................................ 602
(25) TO CLAIM BENEFIT OF SECTION SPECIFIC PLEA AND
EVIDENCE NECESSARY ....................................................... 603
(26) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 603
(27) MODE OF PROOF ................................................................. 611
(28) CLOSER AND STRICTER SCRUTINY OF EVIDENCE REQUIRED ...... 612
(29) EVIDENCE OF INSANITY— TWO POINTS FOR
CONSIDERATION ................................................................ 613
(30) INFERENCES FROM THE CONDUCT OF ACCUSED AND
ATTENDING CIRCUMSTANCES ............................................. 616
(31) PLEA OF INSANITY CAN BE RAISED EVEN IN CONFIRMATION
PROCEEDINGS ON RELIABLE EVIDENCE .............................. 617
(32) FAMILY ANTECEDENTS ........................................................... 619
(33) RELEVANCY OF ABSENCE OF MOTIVE OR ATROCITY
OF CRIME ........................................................................ 619
(34) INSANITY IS TO BE PROVED BY MEDICAL EVIDENCE OR
UNDISPUTED SURROUNDING CIRCUMSTANCES ...................... 621
(35) EVIDENCE OF MEDICAL EXPERT ............................................. 621
(36) EVIDENCE OF MEDICAL MAN AND MCNAUGHTEN’S CASE ....... 623
(37) EVIDENCE OF RELATIONS OF THE ACCUSED REGARDING
HIS INSANITY ................................................................... 624
(38) DUTY OF COURT ................................................................... 624
(39) COURT NOT COMPETENT TO HOLD INSANITY
ESTABLISHED ON THE BASIS OF ITS
OWN OBSERVATIONS ......................................................... 626
(40) TRIAL ON ISSUE OF UNSOUNDNESS OF MIND ........................ 627
(41) POSTPONEMENT AND RESUMPTION, ETC, OF TRIAL OF
PERSON OF UNSOUND MIND ............................................ 627
85. Act of a person incapable of judgment by reason
of intoxication caused against his will ..................................... 627
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 628
(2) THREE PREPOSITIONS REGARDING SCOPE AND AMBIT ............... 629
(3) ‘AGAINST HIS WILL’ AND ‘WITHOUT HIS KNOWLEDGE’ .......... 629
(4) INVOLUNTARY DRUNKENNESS ................................................. 629
(5) VOLUNTARY DRUNKENNESS NO EXCUSE FOR CRIME ................ 631
86. Offence requiring a particular intent or knowledge
committed by one who is intoxicated ...................................... 633
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 633
(2) INTOXICATION IS ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT OF SECTION ............. 634
(3) ‘STATE OF INTOXICATION’ ...................................................... 635
(4) DEFENCE OF DRUNKENNESS .................................................. 636
(5) ‘SHALL BE LIABLE TO BE DEALT WITH’ ................................. 637
(6) PRESUMPTION REGARDING INTENTION ..................................... 638
(7) REASON FOR OMITTING INTENTION ....................................... 639
(8) DRUNKENNESS CAUSING INSANITY AND FALLING SHORT
OF INCAPACITY ................................................................. 640
(9) ILLUSTRATIVE CASES ............................................................... 640
(10) KNOWLEDGE AND INTENT IN CASE OF INVOLUNTARY
DRUNKENNESS ................................................................. 641
(11) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 642
87. Act not intended and not known to be likely to cause
death or grievous hurt, done by consent ................................. 642
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 643
(2) SECTIONS 87–93 REFER ONLY TO PERSONAL INJURIES ............ 644
(3) LEGAL NATURE OF INJURIES ................................................... 644
(4) CONSENT AS A DEFENCE ...................................................... 645
(5) CONSENTING PARTY MUST BE ABOVE 18 YEARS OF AGE ........ 645
(6) CONSENT ............................................................................. 646
(7) DEATH OR GRIEVOUS HURT CANNOT BE CONSENTED TO ...... 646
(8) DUELLING ............................................................................. 647
(9) PRIZE FIGHT .......................................................................... 647
(10) ATHLETIC GAMES .................................................................. 648
(11) THE WORD ‘HARM’ AND ITS MEANING ................................. 648
(12) HURT OR HARM OTHER THAN DEATH, OR GRIEVOUS
HURT, MAY BE INTENDED OR KNOWN TO BE LIKELY ....... 649
88. Act not intended to cause death, done by consent in
good faith for person’s benefit ................................................. 649
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 650
(2) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 87 AND 88 ....................... 650
(3) ANY HARM EXCEPT INTENTIONAL CAUSING OF DEATH ............ 650
(4) RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE IS SUBJECT TO RESTRICTIONS
OF THIS SECTION ............................................................. 651
(5) ‘CONSENT’ ........................................................................... 651
(6) CORPORAL PUNISHMENT TO CHILD/STUDENT BY TEACHER ...... 652
(7) INTENDED ............................................................................ 653
(8) HARM ................................................................................... 653
(9) ‘BENEFIT’ ............................................................................. 653
(10) ‘GOOD FAITH’ ...................................................................... 653
(11) OPERATION BY UNQUALIFIED DOCTORS .................................. 653
89. Act done in good faith for benefit of child or insane
person, by or by consent of guardian ....................................... 654
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 655
(2) PROVISIONS OF THE SECTION WHEN CAN BE INVOKED .......... 656
(3) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THIS SECTION AND SECTIONS 87
AND 88 .......................................................................... 657
(4) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTIONS 88 AND 89 ......................... 657
(5) NATURE OF HARM THAT MAY BE INFLICTED AND
JUSTIFYING CIRCUMSTANCES ............................................... 657
(6) ACTS ‘PER SE’ OFFENCES NOT EXEMPTED .............................. 658
(7) ABETMENT OF AN OFFENCE NOT EXEMPTED ......................... 658
(8) ‘BENEFIT’ ............................................................................. 658
(9) ‘HARM’ ................................................................................ 659
(10) DELEGATION OF PARENTAL AUTHORITY FOR CORPORAL
PUNISHMENT BY SCHOOLMASTER AND ITS EXTENT ............. 659
90. Consent known to be given under fear or
misconception .......................................................................... 660
(1) SCOPE AND OBJECT .............................................................. 661
(2) FACTORS IN FIRST AND SECOND PART FROM POINT OF
VIEW OF VICTIM AND ACCUSED RESPECTIVELY .................. 662
(3) TWIN REQUIREMENT OF SECTION SHOULD BE
CUMULATIVELY SATISFIED ................................................... 662
(4) CONSENT ............................................................................. 663
91. Exclusion of acts which are offences independently
of harm caused ......................................................................... 669
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 669
(2) ‘HARM’ ................................................................................ 669
(3) OVERRIDING EFFECT OF THE MEDICAL TERMINATION OF
PREGNANCY ACT 1971 ..................................................... 669
92. Act done in good faith for benefit of a person
without consent ....................................................................... 670
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 671
(2) OBJECT ................................................................................ 672
(3) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTIONS 89 AND 92 ......................... 673
(4) ‘HARM’ ................................................................................ 673
(5) ‘BENEFIT’ ............................................................................. 673
(6) ‘GOOD FAITH’ ...................................................................... 673
(7) TWO RULES AS TO KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL OF MEDICAL
PRACTITIONER .................................................................. 673
93. Communication made in good faith ........................................... 674
(1) PRE-REQUISITES ...................................................................... 674
94. Act to which a person is compelled by threats ............................ 675
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 675
(2) MURDER EXCEPTED ................................................................ 677
(3) OFFENCES AGAINST STATE PUNISHABLE WITH DEATH
ALSO EXCEPTED ............................................................... 677
(4) NECESSITY ............................................................................ 679
(5) PROVISO ............................................................................... 680
(6) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 681
 

95. Act causing slight harm ............................................................... 681
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 681
(2) OBJECT ................................................................................ 682
(3) SECTION NOT APPLICABLE UNLESS ACT IS OTHERWISE
AN OFFENCE .................................................................... 683
(4) ‘BY REASON THAT IT CAUSES ANY HARM’ .............................. 683
(5) ‘HARM’ ................................................................................ 684
(6) SLIGHT HARM ....................................................................... 684
(7) ‘PERSON OF ORDINARY SENSE AND TEMPER’ .......................... 688
(8) APPLICABILITY TO OFFENCES UNDER SPECIAL
OR LOCAL ACTS .............................................................. 688
CHAPTER 5
Of the Right of Private Defence .................................................691
(1) TOPICAL INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 691
(2) BASIC PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE DOCTRINE OF
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ............................................ 695
(3) LEADING RULES AS TO PRIVATE DEFENCE ............................... 696
(4) INDIAN LAW DIFFERS FROM ENGLISH LAW ............................... 698
96. Things done in private defence ................................................... 699
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 700
(2) EFFECT OF SECTION .............................................................. 702
(3) WHEN EVEN DEATH CAN BE CAUSED IN
PRIVATE DEFENCE ............................................................. 702
(4) RIGHT NOT AVAILABLE TO AN AGGRESSOR, ETC ..................... 703
(5) NO RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE WHEN NO PARTY IS
IN POSSESSION ................................................................. 704
(6) NATURE OF PLEA OF PRIVATE DEFENCE AND WHEN IT
CAN BE TAKEN ................................................................ 705
(7) CONSIDERATION OF PLEA OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ...................... 705
(8) PLEA OF PRIVATE DEFENCE NEED NOT BE
SPECIFICALLY TAKEN .......................................................... 706
(9) PURE QUESTION OF LAW ....................................................... 710
(10) EXERCISE OF THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE—
A QUESTION OF FACT ..................................................... 710
(11) MAKING OF ASSAULT EXPLAINED ............................................ 712
(12) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 712
(13) PLEA OF PRIVATE DEFENCE NEED NOT BE PROVED
BEYOND REASONABLE DOUBT ........................................... 715
(14) INJURIES ON EITHER PARTY, HOW FAR DETERMINE
THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ..................................... 717
97. Right of private defence of the body and of property ................. 719
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 720
(2) RIGHT ONCE AVAILABLE MAY ALSO BE LOST .......................... 722
(3) ACTUAL COMMISSION OF OFFENCE NOT NECESSARY
FOR EXERCISE OF RIGHT .................................................. 723
(4) RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ONLY AGAINST PARTICULAR
KIND OF OFFENCES ......................................................... 724
(5) ROBBERY COVERS DACOITY—NO RIGHT OF PRIVATE
DEFENCE TO STOLEN PROPERTY ........................................ 726
(6) RIGHT OF EASEMENT NOT UNDER THE
PROTECTED SECTION ........................................................ 726
(7) RIGHT NOT AVAILABLE TO AN AGGRESSOR ............................. 726
(8) CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH ABSOLUTE RIGHT OF
SELF-DEFENCE IS AVAILABLE ............................................... 727
(9) CONSIDERATIONS FOR DETERMINING FREE FIGHT .................... 734
(10) RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF BODY—GENERAL ................. 734
(11) ‘AGAINST ANY OFFENCE AFFECTING THE HUMAN BODY’ .......... 735
(12) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 741
(13) RIGHT OF DEFENCE OF PROPERTY—GENERAL ....................... 742
(14) RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF PROPERTY EXTENDS
TO PERSONS WHO HELP OTHERS IN PROTECTING
THEIR RIGHT ................................................................... 745
(15) ENFORCING A DISPUTED RIGHT AND MAINTAINING
EXISTING RIGHT, DISTINGUISHED ....................................... 746
(16) RIGHT IS SUBJECTED TO THE RESTRICTION IMPOSED BY
SECTIONS 99, 103 AND 105 ........................................... 747
(17) RIGHT TO DEFEND ANOTHER’S PROPERTY .............................. 748
(18) THEFT AND ROBBERY ............................................................ 748
(19) MISCHIEF .............................................................................. 749
(20) PRINCIPLES GOVERNING PRIVATE DEFENCE OF PROPERTY .......... 759
(21) DISPOSSESSION AND DISTURBANCE OF POSSESSION
DISTINGUISHED ................................................................ 761
(22) WHEN TRESPASS CANNOT CEASE WITHOUT COMMITTING
FURTHER TRESPASS ............................................................ 761
98. Right of private defence against the act of a person of
unsound mind, etc ................................................................... 764
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 764

99. Acts against which there is no right of private defence ............... 765
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 766
(2) OBJECT UNDERLYING ENACTMENT OF PARAGRAPH 1 IS
TO PROTECT PUBLIC SERVANT ........................................... 767
(3) RIGHT UNDER SECTION 97 IS SUBJECT TO RESTRICTIONS
IMPOSED BY SECTIONS 99, 103, 105 ............................... 768
(4) ACT WHICH DOES NOT REASONABLY CAUSE APPREHENSION
OF DEATH OR GRIEVOUS HURT ....................................... 768
(5) PUBLIC SERVANT .................................................................... 770
(6) ‘ACTING’ IN ‘GOOD FAITH’ .................................................... 770
(7) GOOD FAITH IS A QUESTION OF FACT .................................. 771
(8) EXPLANATION 1 ..................................................................... 778
(9) PARAGRAPH 2—ACTS DONE BY DIRECTION OF
PUBLIC SERVANT ............................................................... 779
(10) ‘GOOD FAITH’ IN PARAGRAPH 2 ............................................. 780
(11) EXPLANATION 2 ..................................................................... 781
(12) PARAGRAPH 3—TIME TO HAVE RECOURSE TO PUBLIC
AUTHORITIES .................................................................... 781
(13) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................... 784
(14) PARA 4—EXTENT TO WHICH THE RIGHT MAY
BE EXERCISED .................................................................. 785
(15) VIOLENCE INFLICTED IN SELF-DEFENCE MUST BE
PROPORTIONATE ................................................................ 786
(16) EXTENT OF RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE DEPENDS ON
THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF EACH CASE ................................ 787
(17) FORCE TO BE USED CANNOT BE WEIGHED IN
GOLDEN SCALES ............................................................... 788
(18) WHEN DEATH IS CAUSED IN EXCEEDING THE RIGHT OF
PRIVATE DEFENCE ............................................................. 792
100. When the right of private defence of the body
extends to causing death .......................................................... 793
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 794
(2) RIGHT COMMENCES FROM THE MERE APPREHENSION .............. 796
(3) HOMICIDE IN SELF-DEFENCE WHEN JUSTIFIED ......................... 796
(4) HOMICIDE WHEN JUSTIFIABLE ................................................ 799
(5) BURDEN OF PROVING EXCEPTION IS ON THE ACCUSED ........... 800
(6) NOT NECESSARY TO SET UP PLEA OF SELF DEFENCE
AT INVESTIGATION STAGE .................................................. 801
(7) CLAUSES 1 AND 2—REASONABLE APPREHENSION OF
DEATH OR GRIEVOUS HURT ............................................. 802
(8) CLAUSE 3—ASSAULT WITH INTENT TO COMMIT RAPE ........... 809
(9) CLAUSE 4—ASSAULT WITH INTENT TO COMMIT
UNNATURAL LUST ............................................................. 810
(10) PARAGRAPH 5—ASSAULT WITH THE INTENTION OF
KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTION ............................................. 811
(11) A WOMAN’S RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE
AGAINST HUSBAND ........................................................... 812
(12) CLAUSE 6—ASSAULT WITH THE INTENTION OF
WRONGFULLY CONFINING A PERSON .................................. 813
(13) EXCEEDING RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ................................ 814
(14) RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE NOT AVAILABLE
TO AGGRESSORS ............................................................... 817
101. When such right extends to causing any harm
other than death .................................................................. 818
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 819
102. Commencement and continuance of the right of
private defence of the body ................................................. 820
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 820
(2) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 102 AND 105 ................... 821
(3) SECTIONS 102 AND 105 — COMMENCEMENT,
CONTINUITY AND CONCLUSION OF RIGHT OF
PRIVATE DEFENCE ............................................................. 822
(4) COMMENCEMENT OF RIGHT .................................................. 822
(5) THREAT TO COMMIT THE OFFENCE ....................................... 823
(6) CONTINUANCE OF THE RIGHT ............................................... 824
(7) DEFENCE NOT TO BE MODULATED STEP-BY-STEP ................... 825
(8) TEST FOR DETERMINING CONTINUANCE
OF APPREHENSION ............................................................ 826
103. When the right of private defence of property
extends to causing death ...................................................... 826
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 828
(2) RIGHT IS SUBJECT TO RESTRICTION IMPOSED BY
SECTIONS 99, 103 AND 105 ........................................... 830
(3) HOMICIDE IN DEFENCE OF PROPERTY .................................... 830
(4) PERSON EMPLOYED TO GUARD THE PROPERTY ........................ 831
(5) ROBBERY—SNATCHING SEIZED CATTLE AMOUNTS
TO ROBBERY .................................................................... 831
(6) EVERY ROBBERY DOES NOT GIVE RISE TO A RIGHT
TO CAUSE DEATH ............................................................ 832
(7) HOUSE-BREAKING ................................................................... 832
(8) THEFT .................................................................................. 833
(9) MISCHIEF .............................................................................. 833
(10) HOUSE-TRESPASS .................................................................... 834
(11) DEFENCE OF LAND AGAINST TRESPASSER ................................ 835
(12) EXCEEDING THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE
OF PROPERTY ................................................................... 836
104. When such right extends to causing any harm
other than death ...................................................................... 837
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 837
(2) EFFECT OF CONCURRENT FINDING OF TRIAL AND
APPELLATE COURT AS TO TITLE AND PROVISION ................ 839
(3) RIGHT EXTENDS TO CAUSING ANY HARM OTHER
THAN DEATH................................................................... 840
105. Commencement and continuance of the right of
private defence of property .................................................. 841
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 842
(2) RIGHT IS SUBJECT TO RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED BY
SECTIONS 99, 103 AND 105 ........................................... 842
(3) CLAUSE 1—COMMENCEMENT OF THE RIGHT—
RIGHT ARISES ON APPREHENSION OF DANGER ................... 842
(4) CLAUSE 2—CONTINUANCE OF THE RIGHT
AGAINST THEFT ................................................................ 844
(5) CLAUSE 3—CONTINUANCE OF THE RIGHT
AGAINST ROBBERY ............................................................ 847
(6) CLAUSE 4—CONTINUANCE OF THE RIGHT AGAINST
CRIMINAL TRESPASS ................................................................ 847
(7) CLAUSE 5—CONTINUANCE OF RIGHT AGAINST
HOUSE-BREAKING BY NIGHT ............................................. 849
(8) SECTIONS 102 AND 105—COMMENCEMENT, CONTINUITY
AND CONCLUSION OF RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ........... 849
106. Right of private defence against deadly assault when
there is risk of harm to innocent person .............................. 849
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 850
 

CHAPTER 6
Of Abetment ..............................................................................851
(1) FOUR STAGES IN THE COMMISSION OF CRIMES ....................... 851
(2) PERSONS PARTICIPATING IN STAGE 3 ARE ‘PRINCIPAL’—
SECTIONS 34–38 .................................................................. 851
(3) ‘ABETMENT’—STAGES 1, 2 AND 4 ......................................... 852
(4) ANALYSIS OF CHAPTER 6 ........................................................ 852
107. Abetment of a thing.—A person abets the doing
of a thing, who ..................................................................... 853
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 855
(2) ESSENTIALS OF ABETMENT— IT TAKES PLACE IN ONE
OF THREE WAYS ................................................................... 855
(3) PARAMETERS OF ABETMENT ................................................... 857
(4) SECTIONS 107 AND 34 DISTINGUISHED ................................. 858
(5) SECTION 107, INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 AND
SECTION 113A OF THE INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT 1872
ARE NOT CONTRADICTORY ............................................... 858
(6) ABETTOR AND PUNISHMENT FOR ABETMENT .......................... 858
(7) COMMISSION OF AN OFFENCE—WHETHER NECESSARY TO
CONSTITUTE AN ABETMENT .................................................. 859
(8) MERE PRESENCE IS NOT ENOUGH ......................................... 860
(9) PRESENCE OF ABETTOR NOT REQUIRED AT THE SCENE .......... 861
(10) CLAUSE 1—‘INSTIGATE’ AND ‘INSTIGATION’ ............................ 862
(11) CLAUSE 2—CONSPIRACY ........................................................ 870
(12) CLAUSE 3—ABETMENT BY AIDING ......................................... 876
(13) MERE SILENCE, DOING NOTHING AND FAILURE TO
PREVENT OFFENCE, NOT ABETMENT ................................. 879
(14) ABETMENT OF THEFT—ACCESSORY BEFORE FACT ................... 883
(15) ABETMENT OF SUICIDE (SATI OR SUTTEE) .............................. 884
(16) ABETMENT OF EXTORTION .................................................... 886
(17) ABETMENT BY GIVING BRIBE .................................................. 886
(18) ABETMENT OF ATTEMPT TO WAGE WAR ............................... 888
(19) ABETMENT OF PERSONATION—WHEN IT AMOUNTS
TO AN OFFENCE .............................................................. 888
(20) EXPLANATION 2—ACT OR ILLEGAL OMISSION MUST
FACILITATE COMMISSION OF THE ACT ABETTED ................. 888
(21) CHARGE OF ABETMENT ......................................................... 891
(22) PROOF—SPECIFIC ALLEGATIONS BE MADE AND PROVED .......... 894
(23) MERE ASSOCIATION NOT SUFFICIENT TO PROVE
CONSPIRACY ..................................................................... 894
108. Abettor....................................................................................... 895
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 897
(2) THREE ESSENTIALS TO CONSTITUTE AN OFFENCE UNDER
THIS SECTION ....................................................................... 898
(3) ABETMENT, A DISTINCT OFFENCE .......................................... 898
(4) ACCESSORIES AFTER THE FACT ............................................... 899
(5) EXPLANATION 1—ABETMENT BY ILLEGAL OMISSION ................ 899
(6) EXPLANATION 2—EFFECT IMMATERIAL—ABETMENT
IS COMPLETE WITHOUT THE COMMISSION OF
THE ACT ABETTED .......................................................... 900
(7) EXPLANATION 2 TO BE READ WITH SECTIONS 115
AND 116 ........................................................................ 902
(8) OFFENCE OF ABETMENT ........................................................ 902
(9) EXPLANATION 3—TWO FOLD EFFECT .................................... 902
(10) ‘OFFENCE’ ............................................................................ 902
(11) ABETMENT OF ACT DONE BY INNOCENT AGENT ................... 903
(12) EXPLANATION 4—ABETMENT OF ABETMENT .......................... 904
(13) EXPLANATION 5—ABETMENT RELATES TO AN OFFENCE
AND NOT THE OFFENDER ................................................ 905
(14) PROVISIONS OF SECTION 10, INDIAN EVIDENCE
ACT 1872, APPLY ............................................................ 905
(15) EVIDENCE OF ABETTOR ......................................................... 905
108A. Abetment in India of offences outside India........................... 906
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 906
(2) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES ............................................................ 907
(3) ‘OFFENCE’ ............................................................................ 908
(4) ABETMENT IN FOREIGN TERRITORY ......................................... 908
(5) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 908
109. Punishment of abetment if the act abetted is committed
in consequence and where no express provision is
made for its punishment...................................................... 908
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 910
(2) SECTION IS ATTRACTED EVEN WHEN ABETTOR IS
NOT PRESENT .................................................................. 911
lviii
Contents
(3) ESSENTIALS TO CONSTITUTE AN OFFENCE UNDER
THIS SECTION .................................................................. 911
(4) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 109 AND 114 ................... 911
(5) SECTIONS 34, 109 AND 120B, INDIAN PENAL
CODE 1860—DISTINCTION ............................................. 912
(6) ABETMENT OF AN OFFENCE .................................................. 912
(7) ‘ANY OFFENCE’ ..................................................................... 914
(8) ACT ABETTED MUST HAVE BEEN COMMITTED ....................... 914
(9) CONVICTION OF PRINCIPAL NOT ALWAYS NECESSARY—
EXCEPTIONS TO THE GENERAL RULE ................................. 915
(10) ACT MUST BE COMMITTED IN CONSEQUENCE OF THE
ABETMENT—EXPLANATION ............................................... 916
(11) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 917
(12) ARREST ................................................................................. 917
(13) WARRANT OR SUMMONS ........................................................ 918
(14) JOINT TRIAL .......................................................................... 918
(15) JURISDICTION ......................................................................... 918
(16) PLACE OF TRIAL FOR ABETMENT BY LETTER SENT
THROUGH POST ............................................................... 920
(17) ABETMENT IN INDIA OF AN OFFENCE COMMITTED IN
FOREIGN TERRITORY .......................................................... 920
(18) ABETMENT OF FOREIGN TERRITORY OF OFFENCE
COMMITTED IN INDIA....................................................... 921
(19) COMPLAINT NECESSARY IN THE CASE OF ABETMENT OF
CERTAIN OFFENCES ........................................................... 921
(20) SANCTION ............................................................................. 922
(21) PROOF .................................................................................. 922
(22) SENTENCE ............................................................................. 923
(23) CHARGE ................................................................................ 923
110. Punishment of abetment if person abetted does act
with different intention from that of abettor ...................... 926
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 926
(2) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 927
111. Liability of abettor when one act abetted and
different act done................................................................. 927
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 928
(2) ENGLISH LAW ........................................................................ 929
(3) LIABILITY OF ABETTOR FOR ACT COMMITTED......................... 930
(4) PRINCIPLE ............................................................................. 931
(5) ‘WHEN AN ACT IS ABETTED’ ................................................ 931
(6) PROBABLE CONSEQUENCE ....................................................... 931
(7) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 933
(8) PROOF .................................................................................. 933
112. Abettor when liable to cumulative punishment for
act abetted and for act done ................................................ 933
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 934
113. Liability of abettor for an effect caused by the act
abetted different from that intended by the abettor ............... 934
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 935
(2) DIFFERENCE OF MEANS—EFFECT OF .................................... 935
(3) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 936
114. Abettor present when offence is committed .............................. 936
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 936
(2) OBJECT ................................................................................ 937
(3) APPLICABILITY ........................................................................ 937
(4) WHEN INDIVIDUAL ACTS BECOME RELEVANT .......................... 938
(5) THE REAL TEST .................................................................... 939
(6) ‘IS PRESENT WHEN THE ACT OR OFFENCE IS COMMITTED’ .... 941
(7) ‘HE SHALL BE DEEMED TO HAVE COMMITTED SUCH
ACT OR OFFENCE’ ........................................................... 943
(8) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 947
(9) CONDITIONS REQUISITE FOR INITIATION OF PROCEEDINGS ....... 947
(10) CHARGE ................................................................................ 948
115. Abetment of offence punishable with death or
imprisonment for life ........................................................... 948
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY ...................................................... 949
(2) ‘WHOEVER ABETS THE COMMISSION OF AN OFFENCE’ ........... 950
(3) ‘EXPRESS PROVISION’ FOR PUNISHMENT OF SUCH
ABETMENT ....................................................................... 951
(4) DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF SECTIONS 115 AND 117 .......... 951
(5) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 952
(6) CHARGE ................................................................................ 952
(7) PUNISHMENT ......................................................................... 952
116. Abetment of offence punishable with imprisonment—
if offence be not committed ................................................ 953
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 954
(2) RELATIVE SCOPE OF SECTIONS 116 AND 117 OF THE
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 .............................................. 955
(3) OFFENCE .............................................................................. 955
(4) ABORTIVE ATTEMPT TO GIVE BRIBE ....................................... 957
(5) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 958
(6) CHARGE ................................................................................ 958
117. Abetting commission of offence by the public or
by more than ten persons .................................................... 959
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 959
(2) RELATIVE SCOPE OF SECTIONS 115 AND 117 ........................ 960
(3) APPLICABILITY OF SECTION TO OFFENCES UNDER
THE SALT ACT ................................................................. 960
(4) ABETMENT MUST BE OF AN OFFENCE ................................... 961
(5) ‘BY THE PUBLIC GENERALLY…OR PERSONS
EXCEEDING TEN’ .............................................................. 962
(6) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 962
(7) CHARGE ................................................................................ 962
118. Concealing design to commit offence punishable
with death or imprisonment for life .................................... 963
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 964
(2) ‘OFFENCE’ ............................................................................ 964
(3) ‘VOLUNTARILY’ ...................................................................... 964
(4) ‘CONCEALS’ .......................................................................... 964
(5) ‘BY AN ACT OR ILLEGAL OMISSION’ ...................................... 965
(6) DUTY TO GIVE INFORMATION ................................................ 965
(7) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 966
(8) CHARGE ................................................................................ 966
119. Public servant concealing design to commit offence
which it is his duty to prevent ............................................. 966
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 967
(2) PUBLIC SERVANT ..................................................................... 968
(3) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 968
(4) CHARGE ................................................................................ 968

120. Concealing design to commit offence punishable
with imprisonment .............................................................. 969
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 969
(2) PROCEDURE ........................................................................... 970
(3) CHARGE ................................................................................ 970
CHAPTER 7
Criminal Conspiracy ..................................................................971
(1) TOPICAL INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 971
(2) ENGLISH LAW ........................................................................ 973
(3) SUMMARY OF BROAD PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE LAW
OF CONSPIRACY ................................................................ 974
120A.—Definition of criminal conspiracy ........................................ 977
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................... 979
(2) IT IS A SUBSTANTIVE OFFENCE ............................................... 980
(3) CONSTRUCTIVE LIABILITY ....................................................... 981
(4) CONSPIRACY AND OFFENCES PURSUANT TO IT—
DISTINCTION TO BE MADE .............................................. 981
(5) GIST OF THE OFFENCE ......................................................... 981
(6) ESSENCE OF CRIMINAL CONSPIRACY ........................................ 982
(7) SECTION NOT RETROSPECTIVE IN OPERATION ......................... 983
(8) THEORY OF AGENCY ............................................................. 983
(9) SECTIONS 120A AND 34 DISTINGUISHED ............................... 984
(10) SECTIONS 34, 120A AND 149 READ TOGETHER .................... 985
(11) SECTION 120A AND SECTION 10 OF THE INDIAN EVIDENCE
ACT 1872 ....................................................................... 985
(12) EFFECT OF TERMINATION OF CONSPIRACY—JOINDER AND
SPLITTING OF A CONSPIRACY ............................................ 985
(13) DISTINCTION BETWEEN CRIMINAL CONSPIRACY AND
ABETMENT BY CONSPIRACY ............................................... 986
(14) SUMMONING ADDITIONAL ACCUSED\CONSPIRATORS
DURING TRIAL .................................................................. 987
(15) INGREDIENTS OF CRIMINAL CONSPIRACY .................................. 988
(16) AGREEMENT .......................................................................... 989
(17) CONSPIRACY COMES INTO BEING THE MOMENT THE
AGREEMENT IS REACHED .................................................. 990
(18) TWO OR MORE PERSONS ...................................................... 993
(19) EVERY CONSPIRATOR NEED NOT BE CAPABLE ......................... 994
(20) DIFFERENT PERSONS MAY ENTER THE CONSPIRACY AT
DIFFERENT STAGES ............................................................ 995
(21) ILLEGAL ACT—THERE CAN BE NO CONSPIRACY IF THE
ACT IS NOT ILLEGAL ........................................................ 997
(22) ‘EXPLANATION’ ...................................................................... 998
(23) ‘BY ILLEGAL MEANS’ ............................................................. 998
(24) MERE SUSPICION OF MOTIVE IS NOT SUFFICIENT TO
FRAME CHARGES ............................................................... 998
(25) PROOF .................................................................................. 998
(26) WHERE SOME OVERT ACT IS NECESSARY .............................. 1000
(27) INFERENCE FROM CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE ....................... 1000
(28) CONCURRENT FINDINGS BY COURTS BELOW—NO
INTERFERENCE BY SUPREME COURT .................................. 1002
120B. Punishment of criminal conspiracy ...................................... 1002
(1) SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY .................................................... 1003
(2) SECTION IS NOT RETROSPECTIVE IN OPERATION ................... 1006
(3) THE WORD “WHOEVER” IN SECTIONS 415 AND 120B
DOES NOT INCLUDE COMPANY ....................................... 1006
(4) WHERE NO EXPRESS PROVISION IS MADE IN THE CODE
FOR THE PUNISHMENT OF SUCH CONSPIRACY .................. 1007
(5) SUBSISTENCE OF CONSPIRACY ............................................... 1007
(6) COGNISANCE ....................................................................... 1008
(7) CONDITIONS REQUISITE FOR INITIATION OF PROCEEDINGS ..... 1011
(8) PROSECUTION OF CERTAIN CLASSES OF CRIMINAL
CONSPIRACY ................................................................... 1011
(9) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1014
(10) PLACE OF TRIAL .................................................................. 1014
(11) JOINT TRIAL ........................................................................ 1015
(12) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1016
(13) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1023
(14) PROOF OF CONSPIRACY ........................................................ 1024
(15) AGREEMENT TO CHEAT—HOW PROVED ............................... 1028
(16) BURDEN OF PROOF ............................................................. 1030
(17) CONVICTION OF MORE THAN ONE NOT ESSENTIAL ............ 1030
(18) WHETHER PROOF OF OVERT ACT NECESSARY ...................... 1031
(19) SPECIAL RULES OF EVIDENCE IN SECTION 10, INDIAN
EVIDENCE ACT 1872 ..................................................... 1035
(20) CONVICTION—ESSENTIALITY ............................................... 1036
(21) TWO OBJECTIONS TO THE APPLICABILITY OF EVIDENCE
UNDER SECTION 10 ....................................................... 1036
(22) INFERENCE IN CASE OF POSSESSION OF A DOCUMENT .......... 1038
(23) PRINCIPLE OF AGENCY—DURATION OF ITS OPERATION ......... 1038
(24) EVIDENTIARY VALUE OF CIPHER CODE .................................. 1039
(25) APPLICABILITY OF SECTION 10 NOT AFFECTED BY ANY
CONSPIRATOR TURNING AN APPROVER .............................. 1039
(26) INTERCEPTED CORRESPONDENCE AND THE STATEMENTS
OF THE ACCUSED .......................................................... 1040
(27) EXTENT OF ADMISSIBILITY ................................................... 1041
(28) MOTIVE ............................................................................. 1041
(29) PUNISHMENT—OFFENCE OF CONSPIRACY IS SEPARATELY
PUNISHABLE .................................................................... 1041
(30) STAGE AT WHICH A CONSPIRATOR JOINS IS MATERIAL
FOR SENTENCE ............................................................... 1043
(31) ACQUITTAL ON CHARGE OF CONSPIRACY HAS NO EFFECT
ON OTHER OFFENCES .................................................... 1043
CHAPTER 8
Of Offences Against the State ..................................................1047
(1) TWO CLASSES OF OFFENCES AGAINST THE STATE ................. 1047
(2) TREASON UNDER ENGLISH LAW............................................ 1048
(3) THE LAW OF TREASON UNDER THE INDIAN
PENAL CODE 1860 ........................................................ 1050
(4) CONTENTS OF CHAPTER SIX, INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ...... 1050
121. Waging, or attempting to wage war, or abetting
waging of war, against the Government of India ............. 1051
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1052
(2) ‘WHOEVER’ ........................................................................ 1054
(3) INSURRECTION ..................................................................... 1054
(4) CONCEPT OF WAR IN THE SECTION .................................... 1055
(5) ‘WAGES WAR’—OLD LAW .................................................. 1056
(6) VIEWS OF THE LAW COMMISSION ........................................ 1056
(7) MEANING OF THE TERM ‘WAGING WAR’ ............................. 1056
(8) WHAT CONSTITUTES A LEVYING OF WAR IN ENGLAND ......... 1058
(9) ENGLISH VIEW FOLLOWED IN INDIA ..................................... 1059
(10) PRINCIPLES ON WAGING WAR .............................................. 1060
(11) TERRORIST ACT ................................................................... 1061
(12) CONCEPT OF WAR IN INTERNATIONAL LAW SPHERE ............... 1061
(13) TERRORIST’S ATTACK ON PARLIAMENT IS WAGING WAR
AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT ........................................... 1062
(14) QUESTION OF DECLARATION OF WAR BY GOVERNMENT ...... 1064
(15) DISTINCTION BETWEEN RIOT AND WAGING WAR ................. 1064
(16) ‘AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA’ ................................ 1066
(17) ABETS THE WAGING OF SUCH WAR ..................................... 1067
(18) NO DISTINCTION BETWEEN PRINCIPAL AND ACCESSORY ........ 1068
(19) PREVIOUS SANCTION OF GOVERNMENT NECESSARY ............... 1069
(20) JOINDER OF CHARGES .......................................................... 1069
(21) LIMITATION ......................................................................... 1069
(22) ARREST, BAIL AND COURT OF TRIAL .................................... 1069
(23) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1070
(24) PROOF ................................................................................ 1070
121A. Conspiracy to commit offences punishable
by Section 121. ................................................................. 1070
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1071
(2) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES .......................................................... 1072
(3) MARGINAL NOTE TO THE SECTION ...................................... 1072
(4) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1073
(5) TWO KINDS OF CONSPIRACIES EMBRACED............................. 1073
(6) MERE HOLDING OF CERTAIN VIEWS NOT PUNISHABLE ......... 1073
(7) CONSPIRACY ITSELF IS A CRIME ............................................ 1074
(8) ‘TO OVERAWE BY MEANS OF CRIMINAL FORCE’ ................... 1076
(9) CRIMINAL FORCE CONSIDERED ............................................. 1076
(10) CONDITION FOR INITIATION OF PROCEEDINGS ...................... 1077
(11) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1077
(12) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1077
(13) PROOF ................................................................................ 1078
(14) PUNISHMENT ....................................................................... 1079
122. Collecting arms, etc., with intention of waging war
against the Government of India ....................................... 1080
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1081
(2) INGREDIENTS ....................................................................... 1081
(3) ‘OTHERWISE PREPARES’ ........................................................ 1081
(4) ‘PREPARATION’ DISTINGUISHED FROM ‘ATTEMPT’ .................... 1081
(5) PRESUMPTION UNDER SECTION 111A OF INDIAN
EVIDENCE ACT ............................................................... 1082
(6) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1083
(7) INFORMATION TO POLICE OR MAGISTRATE ............................ 1083
(8) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1083
(9) PROOF ................................................................................ 1083
123. Concealing with intent to facilitate design
to wage war ........................................................................ 1084
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1084
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1084
(3) INFORMATION TO POLICE OR MAGISTRATE ............................ 1084
(4) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1085
(5) PROOF ................................................................................ 1085
124. Assaulting President, Governor, etc., with intent
to compel or restrain the exercise of any
lawful power ...................................................................... 1085
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1086
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1086
(3) INFORMATION TO POLICE OR MAGISTRATE ............................ 1086
(4) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1087
(5) PROOF ................................................................................ 1087
124A. Sedition ................................................................................. 1087
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1089
(2) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................. 1092
(3) HISTORY OF THE SECTION AND ITS AMENDMENTS ............... 1092
(4) ENGLISH LAW ...................................................................... 1097
(5) LANGUAGE OF SECTION IS BORROWED FROM
ENGLISH LAW ................................................................. 1098
(6) SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS ................................................. 1100
(7) SECURITY ............................................................................ 1100
(8) PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE SECTION—BALANCE
BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND INTEREST
OF PUBLIC ORDER ......................................................... 1100
(9) FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT OF CITIZENS ...................................... 1101
(10) BROAD VIEW OF THE MATTER REQUIRED FROM COURT ....... 1101
(11) ACTS CONSTITUTE SEDITION ONLY IF THEY INCITE
VIOLENCE OR DISTURB LAW AND ORDER OR
CREATE PUBLIC DISORDER, ETC ...................................... 1103
(12) ALLEGATION OF SEDITION ON THE BASIS OF ARTICLES,
PAMPHLETS AND LETTERS ............................................... 1104
(13) SECTIONS 124A AND 153A ................................................ 1105
(14) VALIDITY OF THE SECTION .................................................. 1105
(15) ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ....................................................... 1107
(16) QUESTION OF FACT ............................................................ 1113
(17) ‘ATTEMPTS’ ......................................................................... 1114
(18) SPEECH AS A WHOLE HAS TO BE CONSIDERED .................... 1115
(19) ‘ATTEMPTS TO PUBLISH’ WHEN COMPLETE ........................... 1116
(20) INTENTION—MENS REA ...................................................... 1116
(21) ‘GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED BY LAW IN INDIA’ ..................... 1119
(22) EXPLANATIONS 2 AND 3 ...................................................... 1121
(23) TRUTH DOES NOT EXCUSE SEDITIOUS COMMENTARY ............ 1127
(24) LIABILITY OF EDITOR, PRINTER AND PUBLISHER .................... 1128
(25) JOINT TRIAL OF PRINTER AND PUBLISHER ............................. 1129
(26) SEDITIOUS PAMPHLET ........................................................... 1129
(27) PUNISHMENT ....................................................................... 1129
(28) ‘FORFEITURE’ ....................................................................... 1130
(29) FREEDOM OF THOUGHT AND REMEDY AVAILABLE TO
THE GOVERNMENT ........................................................ 1130
(30) CONDITIONS FOR INITIATION OF PROCEEDINGS ..................... 1131
(31) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1131
(32) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1132
(33) PROOF ................................................................................ 1133
(34) EVIDENCE—NOTES OF SPEECH ARE ADMISSIBLE ................... 1134
125. Waging war against any Asiatic Power in alliance
with the Government of India ........................................... 1134
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1135
(2) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1135
(3) ‘ABETS’ ............................................................................... 1135
(4) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1135
126. Committing depredation on territories of Power
at peace with the Government of India ............................. 1136
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1136
(2) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1136
(3) DEPREDATION ..................................................................... 1136
(4) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1137
(5) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1137
127. Receiving property taken by war on depredation
mentioned in sections 125 and 126 .................................. 1137
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1137
(2) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1137
(3) ‘KNOWING’ ......................................................................... 1138
(4) PROOF ................................................................................ 1138
(5) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1138
(6) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1138
128. Public servant voluntarily allowing prisoner of
State or war to escape ......................................................... 1138
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1139
(2) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1139
(3) ‘STATE PRISONER’ ................................................................ 1139
(4) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1140
(5) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1140
129. Public servant negligently suffering such prisoner
to escape ............................................................................. 1140
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1140
(2) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1141
(3) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1141
(4) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1141
130. Aiding escape of, rescuing or harbouring such prisoner .......... 1141
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1142
(2) WHOEVER ........................................................................... 1142
(3) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1142
(4) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1142
CHAPTER 9
Of Offences Relating to the Army
[Navy and Air Force]
(Including the Indian Marine Service)................................1145
131. Abetting mutiny, or attempting to seduce a soldier,
sailor or airman from his duty ........................................... 1146
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1147
(2) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................. 1147
(3) ‘WHOEVER’ ........................................................................ 1148
(4) ‘ABETS’ ............................................................................... 1148
(5) ‘MUTINY’ ........................................................................... 1149
(6) ‘SOLDIER’ ........................................................................... 1149
(7) ‘SAILOR’ .............................................................................. 1149
(8) ‘AIRMAN’ ............................................................................. 1149
(9) ‘ATTEMPTS TO SEDUCE’ ........................................................ 1149
(10) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1150
(11) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1150
132. Abetment of mutiny if mutiny is committed
in consequence thereof....................................................... 1150
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1151
(2) ‘IN CONSEQUENCES THEREOF’ .............................................. 1151
(3) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1151
(4) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1151
133. Abetment of assault by soldier, sailor or airman on his
superior officer, when in execution of his office ................ 1151
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1152
(2) ‘ASSAULT’ ............................................................................ 1152
(3) ‘OFFICER’ ........................................................................... 1152
(4) ‘SOLDIER’ ........................................................................... 1153
(5) ‘SUPERIOR OFFICER’ ............................................................. 1153
(6) ‘IN THE EXECUTION OF HIS OFFICE’ ................................... 1153
(7) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1153
(8) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1153
134. Abetment of such assault, if the assault is committed ............ 1153
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1154
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1154
(3) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1154
135. Abetment of desertion of soldier, sailor or airman................... 1155
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1155
(2) DESERTION ......................................................................... 1155
(3) INTENTION ......................................................................... 1156
(4) ‘SOLDIER’ ........................................................................... 1156
(5) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1156
(6) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1156
136. Harbouring deserter ................................................................ 1157
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1157
(2) ‘HARBOURING DESERTER’ ..................................................... 1157
(3) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1157
(4) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1157
137. Deserter concealed on board merchant vessel
through negligence of master ............................................. 1158
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1158
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1158
(3) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1159
138. Abetment of act of insubordination by soldier,
sailor or airman .................................................................. 1159
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1159
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1160
(3) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1160
138A. Application of foregoing sections to the Indian
Marine Service ................................................................... 1160
139. Persons subject to certain Acts ................................................. 1160
140. Wearing garb or carrying token used by soldier,
sailor or airman .................................................................. 1161
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1161
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1162
(3) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1162
(4) PROOF ................................................................................ 1162
CHAPTER 10
Of Offences Against Public Tranquillity ..................................1163
141. Unlawful assembly ................................................................... 1165
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1167
(2) LEGISLATIVE CHANGES .......................................................... 1168
(3) OBJECT .............................................................................. 1168
(4) ESSENTIALS OF ‘UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ .................................... 1168
(5) ASSEMBLY OF FIVE OR MORE PERSONS ................................ 1169
(6) EFFECT OF ACQUITTAL OF SOME OF MEMBERS
OF UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY ................................................ 1170
(7) FINDING WITH CERTAINTY ................................................... 1171
(8) WHEN LESS THAN FIVE PERSONS CAN BE CONVICTED
BEING MEMBER OF UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY ........................ 1172
(9) PERSONS FORMING UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY—
HOW ASCERTAINED ......................................................... 1172
(10) COMMON OBJECT ............................................................... 1178
(11) THE ASSEMBLY MUST HAVE A COMMON OBJECT .................. 1179
(12) OPPOSITE FACTIONS CANNOT CONSTITUTE ONE
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY ...................................................... 1180
(13) PRIOR CONCERT NOT NECESSARY ........................................ 1180
(14) COMMON OBJECT MUST BE AN IMMEDIATE ONE ................. 1181
(15) EXERCISING RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE BY AN
ASSEMBLY IS NOT UNLAWFUL .......................................... 1184
(16) INITIALLY LAWFUL ASSEMBLY MAY TURN UNLAWFUL ............... 1184
(17) DETERMINATION OF COMMON OBJECT—FACTORS
TO BE CONSIDERED ....................................................... 1186
(18) FIRST CLAUSE—TO OVERAWE BY CRIMINAL FORCE OR
SHOW OF CRIMINAL FORCE ............................................. 1189
(19) SECOND CLAUSE—RESISTANCE ............................................. 1190
(20) SECOND CLAUSE—EXECUTION OF LAW ................................ 1191
(21) SECOND CLAUSE—EXECUTION OF LEGAL PROCESS ................ 1192
(22) THIRD CLAUSE—TO COMMIT MISCHIEF, CRIMINAL
TRESPASS OR OTHER OFFENCE ....................................... 1193
(23) FOURTH CLAUSE—SCOPE AND OBJECT ................................. 1196
(24) ‘BY MEANS OF CRIMINAL FORCE OR SHOW OF
CRIMINAL FORCE’ ........................................................... 1197
(25) ‘TO ANY PERSON’ ............................................................... 1198
(26) ‘POSSESSION’ ....................................................................... 1199
(27) ‘TO TAKE OR OBTAIN POSSESSION’ ...................................... 1200
(28) ‘PROPERTY’ ......................................................................... 1204
(29) ‘TO DEPRIVE ANY PERSON OF THE ENJOYMENT OF
RIGHT OF WAY’ ............................................................ 1204
(30) ‘ENJOYMENT OF THE USE OF WATER’ ................................. 1207
(31) RIGHT TO FISH ................................................................... 1208
(32) ‘TO ENFORCE ANY RIGHT OR SUPPOSED RIGHT’ .................. 1208
(33) FIFTH CLAUSE—ILLEGAL COMPULSION BY USE
OR SHOW OF CRIMINAL FORCE ....................................... 1212
(34) EXPLANATION ...................................................................... 1213
142. Being member of unlawful assembly ...................................... 1215
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1216
(2) WHETHER MERE PRESENCE SUFFICIENT ................................. 1216
(3) ‘BEING AWARE OF FACTS WHICH RENDER ANY
ASSEMBLY INTO UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ ............................. 1217
(4) PRESUMPTION IN A CASE OF RIOT ........................................ 1217
(5) ‘INTENTIONALLY JOINS’ ........................................................ 1218
(6) ‘CONTINUES IN IT’ .............................................................. 1219
143. Punishment ............................................................................. 1222
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1222
(2) SECTIONS 143, 147 AND 148 CONSIDERED TOGETHER ........ 1224
(3) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1224
(4) COMPLAINT OF PUBLIC SERVANT, IF NECESSARY ..................... 1225
(5) REQUIREMENT OF CHARGE .................................................. 1225
(6) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1226
(7) PROOF ................................................................................ 1227
(8) CONVICTION WHEN OBJECT OF THE UNLAWFUL
ASSEMBLY FAILS— CONFLICTING VIEWS ........................... 1228
(9) SENTENCE ........................................................................... 1229
(10) SECURITY FOR KEEPING THE PEACE ...................................... 1230
(11) INFORMATION BY PUBLIC ...................................................... 1230
(12) INFORMATION BY VILLAGE OFFICERS, ETC ............................. 1230
144. Joining unlawful assembly armed with
deadly weapon ................................................................... 1230
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1231
(2) ‘WHOEVER’ ........................................................................ 1231
(3) ‘DEADLY WEAPON’ .............................................................. 1232
(4) ‘OR WITH ANYTHING WHICH, USED AS A
WEAPON OF OFFENCE, IS LIKELY TO CAUSE DEATH’ ........ 1232
(5) ‘IS MEMBER OF AN UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ ........................... 1233
(6) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1233
(7) REQUIREMENTS OF CHARGE ................................................. 1233
(8) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1234
145. Joining or continuing in unlawful assembly, knowing
it has been commanded to disperse ................................... 1234
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1235
(2) ESSENTIALS OF THE OFFENCE .............................................. 1236
(3) ‘JOINS OR CONTINUES IN AN UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ ............. 1236
(4) ‘KNOWING THAT ASSEMBLY HAS BEEN COMMANDED
TO DISPERSE’ ................................................................. 1237
(5) ‘COMMANDED IN THE MANNER PRESCRIBED BY LAW’ ........... 1237
(6) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1237
(7) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1238

146. Rioting..................................................................................... 1238
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1238
(2) RIOTING ............................................................................. 1239
(3) INJURY OR DAMAGE NOT NECESSARY ................................... 1240
(4) ENGLISH LAW AS TO RIOTING ............................................. 1240
(5) DUTY OF COURT/MAGISTRATE ............................................ 1241
(6) ‘UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ ......................................................... 1241
(7) ‘USE OF FORCE OR VIOLENCE’ ........................................... 1242
(8) ‘BY AN UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY, OR ANY
MEMBER THEREOF’ ......................................................... 1244
(9) ‘IN PROSECUTION OF THE COMMON OBJECT OF
SUCH ASSEMBLY’ ............................................................. 1244
(10) ‘EVERY MEMBER OF SUCH ASSEMBLY IS GUILTY OF THE
OFFENCE OF RIOTING’ ................................................... 1247
(11) OVERT ACT NOT NECESSARY FOR CONVICTION .................... 1247
147. Punishment for rioting ............................................................ 1248
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1249
(2) ACQUITTAL OF SUBSTANTIAL OFFENCE RULES
OUT RIOTING ................................................................ 1249
(3) LAWFUL OBJECT OF ASSEMBLY—CONSEQUENCES
OF UNLAWFUL ACTS—SECTION 147 HAS
NO APPLICATION TO SUCH CASES .................................... 1249
(4) PRINCIPLE OF VICARIOUS CRIMINAL LIABILITY ........................ 1251
(5) SECTIONS 147 AND 149—CONSIDERED TOGETHER ............. 1252
(6) SECTIONS 147 AND 148—CONSIDERED TOGETHER ............. 1252
(7) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1253
(8) EFFECT OF COMPROMISE IN RESPECT OF COMPOUNDABLE
OFFENCES CHARGED WITH THIS SECTION ........................ 1253
(9) NECESSITY AND PARTICULARS OF CHARGE ............................ 1254
(10) CHARGE UNDER SECTION 149 INCLUDES CHARGE
UNDER SECTION 147 ..................................................... 1254
(11) COMMON OBJECT TO BE SET OUT IN CHARGE .................... 1255
(12) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1257
(13) PROOF ................................................................................ 1258
(14) SECTION NOT APPLICABLE TO A CASE OF
SUDDEN FIGHT ............................................................... 1260
(15) WHEN LAWFUL ASSEMBLY SUDDENLY TURNS UNLAWFUL ......... 1260
(16) CERTAIN PRESUMPTIONS IN A CASE OF RIOTING ................... 1263
(17) TESTIMONY OF EYEWITNESSES NOT TO BE REJECTED
BECAUSE OF SOME INCONSEQUENTIAL
CONTRADICTION OR EXAGGERATION ................................ 1264
(18) CERTAIN GUIDELINES FOR CASES OF MAMMOTH RIOTING ..... 1265
(19) JOINDER OF CHARGES—TRIAL OF CROSS-CASES .................... 1266
(20) EFFECT OF ACQUITTAL OF SOME MEMBERS OF THE
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY—SOME ILLUSTRATIVE CASES ............ 1267
(21) SENTENCE ........................................................................... 1268
(22) WHETHER AN OFFENCE UNDER THIS SECTION INVOLVES
MORAL TURPITUDE ......................................................... 1269
148. Rioting, armed with deadly weapon........................................ 1269
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1270
(2) SECTIONS 147 AND 148—DISTINGUISHING FEATURES .......... 1270
(3) UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY AND COMMON OBJECT—SOME
ILLUSTRATIVE CASES ............................................................. 1271
(4) LARGE SCALE RIOTING ......................................................... 1273
(5) ACT OF MEMBER OF UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY MAY
NOT BIND ALL .............................................................. 1273
(6) ‘WHOEVER’ ........................................................................ 1273
(7) ‘BEING ARMED’—USE OF WEAPON NOT NECESSARY .............. 1274
(8) ‘DEADLY WEAPON’ .............................................................. 1274
(9) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1276
(10) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1276
(11) PROOF ................................................................................ 1276
(12) CONVICTION ....................................................................... 1278
(13) ACQUITTAL .......................................................................... 1278
149. Every member of unlawful assembly guilty of offence
committed in prosecution of common object .................... 1279
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1280
(2) PRINCIPLES OF VICARIOUS LIABILITY ....................................... 1283
(3) ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ....................................................... 1283
(4) COMMON OBJECT UPTO A CERTAIN POINT—EFFECT ............ 1285
(5) DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTION 34 AND SECTION 149 ....... 1287
(6) SECTIONS 34, 114 AND 149 .............................................. 1290
(7) APPLICABILITY OF SECTION 149 TO PART I
OF SECTION 304 ........................................................... 1291
(8) APPLICABILITY OF SECTION 149 TO PART II
OF SECTION 304 ........................................................... 1291
(9) TRITE LAW.......................................................................... 1291
(10) TWO PARTS OF THE SECTION ............................................. 1291
(11) RELEVANT FACTORS ............................................................. 1293
(12) PIVOTAL AND CRUCIAL QUESTION ........................................ 1293
(13) ACT COMMITTED BY ONE MEMBER OF
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY MAY NOT BIND ALL ...................... 1294
(14) OVERT ACT IF NECESSARY ................................................... 1295
(15) NO TRIAL FOR THIS SECTION ALONE ................................... 1296
(16) SECTIONS 149 AND 150 DISTINGUISHED ............................. 1296
(17) SECTIONS 149 AND 301 CONSIDERED TOGETHER ................ 1297
(18) SECTIONS 34, 120A AND 149 CONSIDERED TOGETHER ....... 1297
(19) SECTIONS 147 AND 149 CONSIDERED TOGETHER ................ 1297
(20) DUTY OF COURT/MAGISTRATE ............................................ 1297
(21) UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY— REQUIREMENT OF ........................... 1297
(22) ‘AN OFFENCE IS COMMITTED’ .............................................. 1301
(23) ‘BY ANY MEMBER OF AN UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ ................... 1301
(24) OFFENCE COMMITTED BY ONE OR MORE PERSONS IN
CONCERT ....................................................................... 1302
(25) COMMON OBJECT ............................................................... 1303
(26) ‘IN PROSECUTION OF THE COMMON OBJECT OF
THAT ASSEMBLY’ ............................................................ 1308
(27) ‘OR SUCH AS THE MEMBERS OF THAT ASSEMBLY KNEW
TO BE LIKELY TO BE COMMITTED IN PROSECUTION
OF THAT OBJECT’ .......................................................... 1312
(28) MEANING OF ‘KNEW’ AND ‘LIKELY’ .................................... 1312
(29) CASES OF FREE FIGHT ......................................................... 1315
(30) PROOF OF THE REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE ............................... 1317
(31) INFERENCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF COMMON OBJECT FROM
RELEVANT FACTS ............................................................ 1317
(32) MERE KNOWLEDGE OF LIKELY COMMISSION OF ACT ............ 1320
(33) INFERENCE REGARDING KNOWLEDGE TO CAUSE DEATH .......... 1320
(34) LIABILITY ATTACHES ONLY TO MEMBERS OF AN
ASSEMBLY ‘AT THE TIME OF COMMITTING
THAT OFFENCE’ ............................................................. 1322
(35) PHYSICAL PARTICIPATION IF NECESSARY ................................. 1324
(36) MERE SPECTATOR NOT LIABLE ............................................. 1325
(37) NO LIABILITY OF PERSON SEPARATED FROM
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY ...................................................... 1325
(38) EXTENT OF LIABILITY OF MEMBERS—LIABILITY
UNDER FIRST PART—LIMITED LIABILITY UNDER
SECOND PART ................................................................ 1326
(39) WHEN COMMON OBJECT OF UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY
NOT MURDER BUT MURDER IS COMMITTED ................... 1328

(40) OMISSION TO ASK QUESTION UNDER SECTION 313,
CRPC REGARDING FORMING OF AN UNLAWFUL
ASSEMBLY ....................................................................... 1330
(41) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1331
(42) CONTENTS OF CHARGE—FOUNDATION
FOR CONVICTION ........................................................... 1331
(43) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1333
(44) LEGAL POSITION EXPLAINED ................................................. 1339
(45) JOINDER OF CHARGES AND SEPARATE TRIALS ......................... 1340
(46) PROOF ................................................................................ 1340
(47) IDENTIFICATION BY TWO WITNESSES DESIRABLE WHEN
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY IS LARGE ........................................ 1341
(48) CONVICTION ....................................................................... 1343
(49) MERE MEMBERSHIP OF UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY
IS SUFFICIENT ................................................................. 1348
(50) INDEPENDENT PART IN CRIME BY MEMBERS OF
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY NOT NECESSARY ............................ 1348
(51) OTHER FACTORS ................................................................. 1349
(52) NO CONVICTION WITH THE AID OF SECTION 147
OR 148–149 IF THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE
IS AVAILABLE OR HAS BEEN EXCEEDED ........................... 1349
(53) EFFECT OF CONVICTION OF LESS THAN FIVE PERSONS ......... 1352
(54) OMISSION TO RECORD A FINDING NOT MATERIAL ............... 1354
(55) SENTENCE ........................................................................... 1354
(56) SEPARATE CONVICTIONS AND SENTENCES FOR
SUBSTANTIVE OFFENCES .................................................. 1357
150. Hiring, or conniving at hiring, of persons to join
unlawful assembly ............................................................. 1358
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1359
(2) LIABILITY OF THE HIRER, ETC ............................................. 1359
(3) SECTION 157 DISTINGUISHED .............................................. 1360
(4) MEANING OF ‘HIRES’, ‘ENGAGES’ OR ‘EMPLOYS’ .................. 1360
(5) ‘PROMOTES’ OR ‘CONNIVES’—EXPLAINED ............................ 1360
(6) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1361
(7) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1361
151. Knowingly joining or continuing in assembly of five
or more persons after it has been commanded to disperse ..... 1361
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1362
(2) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................. 1363
(3) ‘KNOWINGLY JOINS OR CONTINUES’ ..................................... 1363
(4) ‘ASSEMBLY OF FIVE OR MORE PERSONS’ ............................... 1363
(5) ‘LIKELY TO CAUSE A DISTURBANCE OF
THE PUBLIC PEACE’ ........................................................ 1363
(6) SATISFACTION OF THE COURT NECESSARY ............................. 1364
(7) ‘LAWFULLY COMMANDED TO DISPERSE’ ................................. 1365
(8) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1365
(9) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1365
152. Assaulting or obstructing public servant when
suppressing riot, etc ........................................................... 1366
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1366
(2) ‘ASSAULT’ ............................................................................ 1366
(3) ‘PUBLIC SERVANT’ ................................................................ 1367
(4) ‘UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY’ ......................................................... 1367
(5) RIOT .................................................................................. 1367
(6) AFFRAY ................................................................................ 1367
(7) CRIMINAL FORCE ................................................................. 1367
(8) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1367
(9) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1367
(10) FORM OF CHARGE ............................................................... 1368
(11) SENTENCE ........................................................................... 1368
153. Wantonly giving provocation with intent to cause riot—
if rioting be committed—if not committed ...................... 1368
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1369
(2) VALIDITY OF THE SECTION .................................................. 1370
(3) GIST OF THE OFFENCE ....................................................... 1370
(4) PROVOCATION TO CAUSE RIOT ............................................ 1370
(5) MEANING OF WORDS ‘WANTONLY’ AND ‘MALIGNANTLY’ ..... 1371
(6) ‘BY DOING ANYTHING WHICH IS ILLEGAL’ ........................... 1372
(7) PROVOCATION BY PUBLICATION ............................................ 1373
(8) ‘INTENDING OR KNOWING THAT IT WAS LIKELY TO
CAUSE RIOTING’ ............................................................. 1374
(9) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1375
(10) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1375
(11) PROOF ................................................................................ 1375

153A. Promoting enmity between different groups on grounds
of religion, race, place of birth, residence, language,
etc, and doing acts prejudicial to maintenance
of harmony ........................................................................ 1375
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1378
(2) AMENDMENTS ..................................................................... 1378
(3) OBJECTS AND REASONS ....................................................... 1378
(4) CHANGES INTRODUCED BY THE NEW SECTION ..................... 1379
(5) PURPOSE ............................................................................. 1379
(6) ANALOGOUS LAW ................................................................. 1380
(7) HEALTHY AND RATIONAL CRITICISM OF RELIGION NOT
AN OFFENCE ....................................................................... 1380
(8) NO APPLICABILITY TO HISTORICAL WORKS ........................... 1381
(9) MORAL TURPITUDE .............................................................. 1382
(10) RELATIVE SCOPE OF SECTIONS 124A, 153 AND 153A ........ 1382
(11) VALIDITY OF NOTIFICATION UNDER SECTION 95
CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE, REGARDING
OBJECTIONABLE MATTERS PERTAINING TO
SECTIONS 124A, 153A, 153B, 292, 293,
295A, INDIAN PENAL CODE ........................................... 1383
(12) RELATIVE SCOPE OF SECTIONS 153A AND 295A ................. 1384
(13) SECTIONS 153A AND 505 CONSIDERED TOGETHER .............. 1384
(14) VALIDITY OF SECTION 153A ................................................ 1385
(15) ‘BY WORDS, SPOKEN OR WRITTEN…OR OTHERWISE’ .......... 1386
(16) ‘PROMOTE’ ......................................................................... 1386
(17) ‘PROMOTES OR ATTEMPTS TO PROMOTE…DISHARMONY
OR FEELING OF ENMITY, HATRED OR ILL-WILL’ .............. 1386
(18) ATTEMPT IMPLIES INTENTION ............................................... 1388
(19) GIST OF THE OFFENCE ....................................................... 1388
(20) INTENTION ......................................................................... 1389
(21) INTENTION CAN BE JUDGED FROM WORDS PUBLISHED
OR OTHER MATERIAL ..................................................... 1389
(22) RULE OF MENS REA EXPRESSLY DISPLACED BY STATUTE ........ 1391
(23) INTENTION—HOW DETERMINED ......................................... 1393
(24) DETERMINATION OF GUILT—OBJECTIONABLE MATTER ......... 1393
(25) ‘ON GROUNDS OF RELIGION…OR ANY OTHER
GROUND WHATSOEVER’ .................................................. 1395
(26) ‘BETWEEN DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS, RACIAL, LANGUAGE
OR REGIONAL GROUPS OR CASTES OR COMMUNITIES’ ..... 1396
(27) CLAUSE (B)—PREJUDICIAL ACT ............................................ 1397
(28) CLAUSE (C) ........................................................................ 1397
(29) SUB-SECTION (2)—OFFENCES COMMITTED IN PLACE OF
WORSHIP, ETC .................................................................... 1397
(30) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1398
(31) CONDITIONS REQUISITE FOR INITIATION OF
PROCEEDINGS ................................................................. 1398
(32) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1398
(33) JOINDER OF CHARGES .......................................................... 1399
(34) JOINT TRIAL ........................................................................ 1399
(35) PROOF ................................................................................ 1399
(36) YARDSTICKS FOR JUDGING AN OFFENSIVE MATTER ................ 1400
153–AA. Punishment for knowingly carrying arms in any
procession or organizing or holding or taking part
in any mass drill or mass training with arms ..................... 1401
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1401
(2) ‘WHOEVER’ ........................................................................ 1402
(3) ‘IN ANY PUBLIC PLACE’ ....................................................... 1402
(4) ‘ANY PUBLIC PLACE IN CONTRAVENTION OF ANY
PUBLIC NOTICE OR ORDER ISSUED OR MADE
UNDER SECTION 144A OF THE CODE OF
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 1973’ .......................................... 1402
(5) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1402
153B. Imputations, assertions prejudicial to
national-integration ........................................................... 1402
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1403
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1404
(3) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1404
154. Owner or occupier of land on which an unlawful
assembly is held ................................................................. 1404
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1405
(2) ANALOGOUS PROVISION ........................................................ 1405
(3) INGREDIENTS OF THE OFFENCE ........................................... 1406
(4) ‘WHENEVER’ ....................................................................... 1407
(5) PERSONS RESPONSIBLE UNDER THE SECTION ......................... 1407
(6) ADOPTED SONS WHEN NOT LIABLE ..................................... 1408
(7) RELEVANCY OF MENS REA OR KNOWLEDGE ........................ 1408
(8) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1409
(9) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1409
(10) PROOF ................................................................................ 1410
155. Liability of person for whose benefit riot is committed .......... 1410
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1411
(2) LIABILITY IN A CASE OF SUDDEN RIOT ................................ 1411
(3) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1412
156. Liability of agent of owner or occupier for whose benefit
riot is committed ............................................................... 1412
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1412
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1413
157. Harbouring person hired for an unlawful assembly ................ 1413
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1413
(2) ‘HIRED, ENGAGED OR EMPLOYED’ ....................................... 1414
(3) ‘HARBOURS’ ........................................................................ 1414
(4) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1414
(5) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1414
158. Being hired to take part in an unlawful assembly or riot ........ 1415
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1415
(2) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1415
159. Affray ....................................................................................... 1415
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1416
(2) INGREDIENTS ....................................................................... 1416
(3) ‘AFFRAY’ DISTINGUISHED FROM A ‘RIOT’ ............................... 1417
(4) ‘AFFRAY’ DISTINGUISHED FROM AN ‘ASSAULT’ ......................... 1417
(5) ‘AFFRAY’ DISTINGUISHED FROM ‘PUBLIC NUISANCE’ ................ 1418
(6) ‘TWO OR MORE PERSONS’ .................................................. 1418
(7) ‘BY FIGHTING’ .................................................................... 1418
(8) USE OF WEAPONS NOT NECESSARY ..................................... 1418
(9) ‘IN A PUBLIC PLACE’ ........................................................... 1419
(10) ‘DISTURB THE PUBLIC PEACE’ .............................................. 1420
160. Punishment for committing affray ......................................... 1420
(1) SCOPE ................................................................................. 1421
(2) MEANING OF AFFRAY ........................................................... 1421
(3) INGREDIENTS OF THE OFFENCE ........................................... 1421
(4) PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 1427
(5) CHARGE .............................................................................. 1427
(6) PROOF ................................................................................ 1428
(7) SEPARATE TRIALS .................................................................. 1428