<p><p>PSA Pillai&rsquo;s Criminal Law has been regarded as a classic text on the Indian Penal Code 1860, (IPC), for over five decades. The current edition retains the scheme and essential facets of the previous editions. In the light of leading judicial pronouncements and emerging trends in the field, it offers an in-depth analysis of all the substantive offences incorporated in the IPC. It, for the first time, also delves into, and offers an analysis of, the Proposals for Reform in each of the offences. Though the book is primarily about the substantive law of crimes in India, provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 (CrPC) and the Indian Evidence Act 1872, are referred to wherever necessary. Written in a simple and lucid style and supported with rich authorities, judicial as well as juristic, this current edition will retain its decades old appeal for all persons interested in the field of criminal law. This book will prove indispensable for practitioners, academics, and judges, most of whom have relied, at one time or another, on Pillai&rsquo;s Criminal Law, at the very start of their legal career as well as in their profession over the past more than fifty years (since its first publication in 1956). It will also be indispensable for students of law pursuing their Bachelors, Masters and Doctoral Degree in the field of criminal law.</p></p>
Foreword .................................................................................................... v
Preface ..................................................................................................... vii
Preface to the Ninth Edition ..................................................................... xiii
Contents ................................................................................................... xix
Table of Cases .......................................................................................... xlix
CHAPTER 1
Nature of Crime ............................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
WHAT IS A CRIME? ....................................................................... 3
CRIMINAL LAW AND MORALITY ...................................................... 9
LAW AND ETHICS ........................................................................ 10
DEFINITIONS OF CRIME .............................................................. 11
CHAPTER 2
Historical Outline ....................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3
Penal Law in India ...................................................................... 21
CRIMINAL LAW OF THE HINDU SYSTEM ....................................... 21
MOHAMMEDAN CRIMINAL LAW ................................................... 23
DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINAL LAW IN INDIA UNDER THE
BRITISH RULE ....................................................................... 24
MAKING OF THE INDIAN PENAL CODE— HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND ....................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 4
Constituent Elements of Crime .................................................. 35
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 35
CONCOMITANT CIRCUMSTANCES .................................................. 39
ACTUS REUS ............................................................................... 40
CAUSATION IN CRIME .................................................................. 42
PRINCIPLE OF ORDINARY HAZARD ............................................... 46
PRINCIPLE OF REASONABLE FORESIGHT ......................................... 47
UNEXPECTED INTERVENTIONS ....................................................... 48
CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE ....................................................... 51
CHAPTER 5
Mens Rea .................................................................................... 53
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 53
PART A
MENS REA
MENS REA IN THE INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ............................. 57
INTENTION ................................................................................. 60
PART B
PUBLIC WELFARE OFFENCES AND MENS REA
PART C
VICARIOUS LIABILITY ................................................................... 72
NEGLECT IN PERFORMANCE OF DUTY .......................................... 75
RIOT AND UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY .................................................. 75
PART D
CRIMINAL LIABILITY OF A CORPORATION ..................................... 76
CHAPTER 6
General Exceptions—An Introduction ........................................ 81
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 81
EXCUSABLE AND JUSTIFIABLE EXCEPTIONS ...................................... 82
OBJECT OF THE CHAPTER ........................................................... 83
APPLICABILITY OF THIS CHAPTER TO OFFENCES UNDER SPECIAL
OR LOCAL LAWS ................................................................... 84
BURDEN OF PROOF .................................................................... 85
STANDARD OF PROOF ................................................................. 85
CHAPTER 7
Mistake of Fact ............................................................................ 89
ACTS DONE BY PERSONS BOUND BY LAW OR JUSTIFIED
BY LAW ................................................................................ 89
NATURE OF MISTAKE AS AN EXCUSE ............................................ 90
MISTAKE OR IGNORANCE OF LAW ............................................... 92
MISTAKE OF FACT ...................................................................... 95
BOUND BY LAW ......................................................................... 96
ACTS DONE UNDER ORDER OF A SUPERIOR
AUTHORITY .......................................................................... 97
JUSTIFIED BY LAW ....................................................................... 99
GOOD FAITH ........................................................................... 101
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTION 79, INDIAN PENAL CODE
1860 AND SECTION 197, CODE OF CRIMINAL
PROCEDURE 1973 ............................................................... 104
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 105
CHAPTER 8
Judicial Acts ................................................................................107
OBJECT OF THE SECTIONS ........................................................ 107
EXERCISE OF POWER BELIEVED IN GOOD FAITH TO
BE GIVEN BY LAW .............................................................. 112
ACTS DONE PURSUANT TO JUDGMENT OR ORDER
OF COURT ......................................................................... 112
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 114
CHAPTER 9
Accident and Misfortune ............................................................115
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ............................................................. 115
NECESSITY ................................................................................ 120
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 124
CHAPTER 10
Infancy .......................................................................................127
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 127
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ............................................................. 128
JUVENILE JUSTICE (CARE AND PROTECTION OF CHILDREN)
ACT 2000 .......................................................................... 130
DETERMINATION OF AGE OF AN ACCUSED JUVENILE .................. 131
ARREST OF A JUVENILE OFFENDER ............................................. 134
TRIAL OF DELINQUENT JUVENILES ............................................. 134
SENTENCING OF JUVENILES ........................................................ 134
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 135
CHAPTER 11
Insanity or Mental Abnormality ................................................137
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 137
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF SECTION 84 .................................... 139
PRESUMPTION OF SANITY .......................................................... 146
BURDEN OF PROOF .................................................................. 147
PROCEDURE FOR TRIAL OF PERSONS OF UNSOUND MIND .......... 151
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 151
CHAPTER 12
Intoxication ................................................................................153
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 153
INVOLUNTARY INTOXICATION ..................................................... 154
VOLUNTARY INTOXICATION ........................................................ 155
INTOXICATION AND INSANITY .................................................... 159
BURDEN OF PROOF .................................................................. 161
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 162
CHAPTER 13
Consent and Compulsion ..........................................................165
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 165
WHAT IS CONSENT? .................................................................. 165
WHY IS ‘CONSENT’ A GENERAL EXCEPTION?:
UNDERLYING PRINCIPLE ....................................................... 168
ACTS DONE BY CONSENT .......................................................... 169
INTENTIONAL DEATH OR GRIEVOUS HURT MAY NOT
BE CAUSED WITH CONSENT ................................................ 169
BENEVOLENT ACTS WITH OR WITHOUT CONSENT ..................... 174
WHERE CONSENT DOES NOT ABSOLVE A DOER .......................... 181
COMMUNICATION MADE IN GOOD FAITH FOR ‘BENEFIT’ ........... 182
COMPULSION BY THREATS OR DURESS PER MINAS ...................... 183
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 186
CHAPTER 14
Trivial Acts .................................................................................189
OBJECT AND APPLICABILITY OF THE SECTION ............................ 189
MEANING OF HARM ................................................................. 191
OFFENCES UNDER PUBLIC WELFARE ENACTMENTS ....................... 193
COMPOUNDING OF TRIVIAL OFFENCES ...................................... 195
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 196
CHAPTER 15
Private Defence ..........................................................................197
PART A
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 197
BASIS OF THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ................................ 198
PART B
THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE IN INDIA:
LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK ..................................................... 199
GENERAL PRINCIPLES ................................................................. 200
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE ESSENTIALLY A DEFENSIVE
AND NOT A PUNITIVE RIGHT ............................................. 201
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE NOT AVAILABLE
TO AGGRESSORS .................................................................. 203
FREE FIGHT .............................................................................. 205
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE NOT AVAILABLE AGAINST
LAWFUL ACTS ..................................................................... 206
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY AND PRIVATE DEFENCE .............................. 207
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE AGAINST ACTS OF LUNATICS,
INTOXICATED PERSONS ........................................................ 208
PART C
PLEA OF SELF-DEFENCE ............................................................ 209
BURDEN OF PROOF .................................................................. 210
EXPLANATION FOR INJURIES ON THE ACCUSED ........................... 213
PART D
LIMITS OF THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE .............................. 217
PART E
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF BODY ...................................... 223
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF BODY EXTENDS TO
PROTECTION OF OTHERS ALSO ........................................... 223
WHEN THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF BODY
EXTENDS TO CAUSING DEATH ............................................. 224
WHEN THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF BODY
DOES NOT EXTEND TO CAUSING DEATH ............................. 231
COMMENCEMENT AND CONTINUATION OF THE RIGHT
OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF BODY........................................... 232
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE EXTENDS TO THE CAUSING
OF UNAVOIDABLE HARM TO INNOCENT PERSONS ................. 233
PART F
RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF PROPERTY ................................ 234
WHEN THE RIGHT OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF PROPERTY
EXTENDS TO CAUSING DEATH ............................................. 238
COMMENCEMENT AND CONTINUATION OF THE RIGHT
OF PRIVATE DEFENCE OF PROPERTY ..................................... 240
PART G
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 241
CHAPTER 16
Attempt ......................................................................................247
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 247
WHAT IS AN ATTEMPT TO COMMIT A CRIME? ............................ 248
WHY IS AN ATTEMPT TO COMMIT A CRIME PUNISHABLE? ........... 249
AN ATTEMPT TO COMMIT A CRIME—AN INCHOATE CRIME? ...... 250
THE INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 AND THE LAW OF ATTEMPT ..... 251
WHEN DOES PREPARATION END AND ATTEMPT BEGIN? ............... 256
TESTS FOR DETERMINING WHETHER AN ACT AMOUNTS
TO A MERE PREPARATION OR AN ATTEMPT TO
COMMIT AN OFFENCE ........................................................ 258
ATTEMPTING AN IMPOSSIBLE ACT ............................................... 264
APPLICATION OF THE LAW OF ATTEMPT—RELEVANT
CONSIDERATIONS FROM INDIAN CASE LAW ........................... 268
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 273
CHAPTER 17
Abetment ...................................................................................277
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 277
PARTIES TO A CRIME ................................................................ 277
LAW RELATING TO ABETMENT ................................................... 279
PART A
ABETMENT AND ABETTOR ......................................................... 279
PRINCIPLE AND SCOPE OF THE PROVISION ................................ 280
IMPORTANT ELEMENT: MENS REA ............................................... 281
ABETMENT BY INSTIGATION ....................................................... 282
ABETMENT BY CONSPIRACY ........................................................ 286
ABETMENT BY INTENTIONAL AIDING .......................................... 286
ILLUSTRATIVE CASES ................................................................... 290
SCOPE AND INGREDIENTS OF SECTION 108 ................................ 294
SCOPE AND NATURE OF PROVISION ........................................... 297
PART B
LIABILITY OF AN ABETTOR ........................................................ 297
OVERVIEW OF THE PROVISIONS OF SECTIONS 109 TO 120,
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ................................................. 298
FACTORS DETERMINING CRIMINALITY OF ABETTOR ..................... 298
SCOPE OF SECTION 109 ........................................................... 299
DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONS 34, 109 AND 120B,
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ................................................. 300
WHETHER DIFFERENT SENTENCE TO PRINCIPAL
OFFENDER AND ABETTOR IS JUSTIFIED ................................. 302
PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING SECTION 110 AND SCOPE OF
THE PROVISION .................................................................. 303
SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY OF PRINCIPLE OF PROBABLE
CONSEQUENCE .................................................................... 305
PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING SECTION 112 ........................................ 306
PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING SECTION 113 ........................................ 306
SCOPE OF SECTION 114 ........................................................... 307
QUANTUM OF PUNISHMENTS: DISTINCTION BETWEEN
SECTIONS 115 AND 116, INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ........... 309
COMPARISON OF PROVISIONS IN SECTIONS 115 AND 116 ........... 311
PART C
PUNISHMENT FOR CONCEALING DESIGNS OR PLANS TO COMMIT
OFFENCES .......................................................................... 312
PENALTIES PROVIDED IN SECTIONS 118, 119 AND 120,
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ................................................. 313
PART D
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 315
CHAPTER 18
Criminal Conspiracy ..................................................................323
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 323
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LAW OF CONSPIRACY IN INDIA .............. 324
INGREDIENTS OF SECTION 120A, INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ...... 326
NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE LAW OF CONSPIRACY IN
SECTION 120A, INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ......................... 328
PROOF OF CONSPIRACY ............................................................ 332
NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECTION 120B .................................... 339
EFFECT OF ACQUITTAL OF ACCUSED ......................................... 340
FRAMING OF CHARGE ............................................................... 342
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTION 120B AND SECTION 107,
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ................................................. 344
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 345
CHAPTER 19
Joint Liability..............................................................................347
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 347
SCOPE OF THE PRINCIPLE OF JOINT LIABILITY AS
PROVIDED IN SECTION 34 ................................................... 349
SCOPE OF ‘COMMON INTENTION’ ............................................. 351
WHAT IS COMMON INTENTION? GUIDING PRINCIPLES ................. 354
PARTICIPATION IN THE CRIMINAL ACT ....................................... 361
ABSENCE OF OVERT ACTS—NO PROOF OF COMMON
INTENTION ......................................................................... 365
APPRECIATION OF EVIDENCE—BENEFIT OF DOUBT TO BE
GIVEN TO ACCUSED ........................................................... 371
EFFECT OF ACQUITTAL OF CO-ACCUSED IN CONVICTION
USING SECTION 34 ............................................................. 372
EFFECT OF CHARGE AGAINST ACCUSED UNDER SECTION 149,
AND NOT SECTION 34, INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ............. 373
COMMON INTENTION VERSUS COMMON OBJECT:
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS .................................................... 375
DISTINCTION BETWEEN ‘ACT’ AND ‘OMISSION’ .......................... 381
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SECTION 34 AND SECTION 37 ................. 381
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 383
CHAPTER 20
Of Punishments .........................................................................385
PART A
PRELUDE
PART B
INTRODUCTION
PART C
PLEA BARGAINING: UNCONSTITUTIONAL, ILLEGAL
AND AGAINST PUBLIC POLICY
PART D
SENTENCING POLICY
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES FOR IMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF PUNISHMENTS ...................................................... 391
AWARDING APPROPRIATE SENTENCE IS THE DISCRETION OF
THE TRIAL COURT .............................................................. 393
PRINCIPLE FOR SENTENCING ...................................................... 396
AGGRAVATING CIRCUMSTANCES ................................................... 398
PART E
TYPES OF PUNISHMENTS
DEATH SENTENCE ..................................................................... 399
COMMUTATION OF DEATH SENTENCE BY THE STATE
OR CENTRAL GOVERNMENT ................................................ 417
IMPRISONMENT FOR LIFE ........................................................... 419
IMPRISONMENT ......................................................................... 424
FORFEITURE OF PROPERTY ......................................................... 427
FINE ........................................................................................ 428
PART F
CONVICTION FOR DOUBTFUL OFFENCES
PART G
SOLITARY CONFINEMENT
PART H
ENHANCED PUNISHMENT
PART I
COMPENSATION TO VICTIMS OF CRIME FROM
WAGES OF PRISONERS
PART J
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
PUNISHMENT ............................................................................ 440
PLEA BARGAINING ..................................................................... 446
CHAPTER 21
Jurisdiction .................................................................................449
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 449
LEGISLATIVE HISTORY OF THE INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860 ........... 449
INTRA-TERRITORIAL AND EXTRA-TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION
INTRA-TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION .............................................. 452
EXTRA-TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION .............................................. 458
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION .......................................................... 466
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 22
Offences Against the State .........................................................469
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 469
PART A
WAGING WAR
WAGING WAR AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ................. 470
WAGING WAR AGAINST POWER ................................................. 474
PART B
ASSAULT ON HIGH OFFICIALS
PART C
ESCAPE OF A STATE PRISONER
PART D
SEDITION
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 477
MEANING OF ‘SEDITION’ .......................................................... 479
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF SECTION 124A ................................ 481
CONSTITUTIONAL VALIDITY OF SECTION 124A .......................... 488
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
WAGING WAR .......................................................................... 491
ASSAULT ON HIGH OFFICIALS .................................................... 493
ESCAPE OF A STATE PRISONER ................................................... 494
SEDITION ................................................................................. 494
CHAPTER 23
Offences Relating to Army, Navy and Air Force .........................497
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 497
OFFENCES RELATING TO ARMY, NAVY AND AIR FORCE ................ 497
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 502
CHAPTER 24
Offences Against Public Tranquility ...........................................507
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 507
PART A
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY
OBJECT .................................................................................... 508
DEFINITION .............................................................................. 508
INGREDIENTS ............................................................................ 509
DEFINITIONAL AND PENAL ASPECTS ........................................... 517
UNLAWFUL ASSEMBLY: OTHER CONNECTED PROVISIONS ............... 545
PART B
RIOTING
PART C
BELONGING TO AN ASSEMBLY OF FIVE
OR MORE PERSONS WHEN ORDERED TO DISPERSE
PART D
AFFRAY
PART E
PROMOTING ENMITY BETWEEN CLASSES
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 566
CHAPTER 25
Offences Relating to Elections ...................................................569
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 569
OFFENCES RELATING TO ELECTIONS ........................................... 570
‘CANDIDATE’ AND ‘ELECTORAL RIGHT’—DEFINED ..................... 570
BRIBERY ................................................................................... 572
UNDUE INFLUENCE ................................................................... 573
PERSONATION AT AN ELECTION ................................................. 578
MAKING OR PUBLISHING DELIBERATE FALSE STATEMENTS ............. 580
ILLEGAL PAYMENTS ..................................................................... 580
FAILURE TO KEEP ELECTION ACCOUNTS ..................................... 581
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 581
CHAPTER 26
Contempts of the Lawful Authority of Public Servants ..............585
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 585
OFFENCES RELATING TO CONTEMPT OF THE LAWFUL
AUTHORITY OF PUBLIC SERVANTS ......................................... 585
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 606
CHAPTER 27
False Evidence and Offences Against Public Justice ....................609
PART A
FALSE EVIDENCE
GIVING FALSE EVIDENCE OR PERJURY ......................................... 611
FABRICATING FALSE EVIDENCE ................................................... 618
DISTINCTION BETWEEN GIVING FALSE EVIDENCE AND
FABRICATING FALSE EVIDENCE ............................................. 621
PUNISHMENT FOR FALSE EVIDENCE ............................................ 622
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF THE OFFENCE OF GIVING
OR FABRICATING FALSE EVIDENCE ....................................... 625
OFFENCES PUNISHABLE IN THE SAME WAY AS GIVING OR
FABRICATING FALSE EVIDENCE ............................................. 627
PART B
OFFENCES AGAINST PUBLIC JUSTICE
CAUSING DISAPPEARANCE OF EVIDENCE ..................................... 633
IMPERSONATION ........................................................................ 647
ABUSE OF PROCESS OF COURT OF JUSTICE ................................ 649
FALSE CHARGE OF AN OFFENCE ................................................ 652
SCREENING AND HARBOURING OFFENDERS ................................ 655
INTRODUCTION
OFFENCES AGAINST JUSTICE BY PUBLIC SERVANTS ........................ 662
RESISTING THE LAW .................................................................. 667
VIOLATION OF CONDITIONS OF REMISSION ............................... 669
CONTEMPT OF COURT CONSTITUTING OFFENCES ....................... 669
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 674
CHAPTER 28
Offences Affecting Public Health, Safety, Convenience,
Decency and Morals.............................................................681
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 681
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE NUISANCE ................................................ 681
DISEASES DANGEROUS TO LIFE ................................................... 687
QUARANTINE RULE ................................................................... 688
NOXIOUS FOOD OR DRINK ........................................................ 688
ADULTERATION OF DRUGS AND SALE THEREOF ........................... 689
SALE OF A DIFFERENT DRUG ..................................................... 689
OFFENCES REGARDING NATURAL RESOURCES ............................... 690
RASH DRIVING .......................................................................... 691
RASH NAVIGATION .................................................................... 694
EXHIBITION OF FALSE LIGHT, MARK OR BUOY, ETC .................... 694
UNSAFE CONVEYANCE IN WATER ................................................ 694
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 694
OBSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC WAY .................................................. 695
POISONOUS SUBSTANCE ............................................................. 695
COMBUSTIBLE MATTER .............................................................. 696
EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCE ............................................................... 696
MACHINERY ............................................................................. 697
PULLING DOWN BUILDINGS ....................................................... 697
ANIMALS .................................................................................. 697
ALL OTHER NUISANCES ............................................................. 698
CONTINUANCE OF NUISANCE .................................................... 698
PUBLIC MORALS AND DECENCY ................................................. 699
LOTTERY .................................................................................. 708
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 709
CHAPTER 29
Coins and Government Stamps .................................................715
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 715
PART A
COINS
COUNTERFEITING ...................................................................... 716
CRIMINAL ACTS OF MINT EMPLOYEES ........................................ 722
ALTERATION OF COINS ............................................................. 723
PART B
GOVERNMENT STAMPS
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 30
Offences Relating to Weights and Measures ..............................731
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 732
CHAPTER 31
Offences Relating to Religion .....................................................735
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 735
DEFILEMENT OF PLACES OF WORSHIP ........................................ 736
OUTRAGING RELIGIOUS FEELINGS ............................................... 741
DISTURBING RELIGIOUS ASSEMBLY ............................................... 744
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 745
CHAPTER 32
Criminal Breach of Contracts of Service ....................................747
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 747
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 748
CHAPTER 33
Offences Relating to Marriage ...................................................751
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 751
OFFENCES RELATING TO MARRIAGE ........................................... 752
MOCK OR INVALID MARRIAGES ................................................. 752
BIGAMY .................................................................................... 754
ADULTERY ................................................................................. 759
CRIMINAL ELOPEMENT/SEDUCTION ............................................ 763
CRUELTY BY HUSBAND OR RELATIVES OF HUSBAND .................... 766
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 777
CHAPTER 34
Homicide ....................................................................................781
PART A
CULPABLE HOMICIDE
‘CAUSING DEATH’: TESTS FOR DETERMINING .............................. 784
INTENTION OR KNOWLEDGE ..................................................... 785
KNOWLEDGE AS MENS REA ....................................................... 787
ACT OF KILLING A PERSON NOT INTENDED TO BE KILLED ........ 787
PROOF OF INTENTION .............................................................. 788
PART B
MURDER
SCOPE OF SECTION 300 ........................................................... 791
INTENTIONALLY CAUSING DEATH —CLAUSE (1) OF
SECTION 300 ..................................................................... 793
INTENTIONAL CAUSING OF BODILY INJURY WITH
KNOWLEDGE THAT IT WILL CAUSE DEATH—CLAUSE (2)
OF SECTION 300 ................................................................ 794
INTENTIONAL CAUSING OF INJURY SUFFICIENT TO CAUSE
DEATH—CLAUSE (3) OF SECTION 300 ................................ 796
KNOWLEDGE THAT ACT IS SO IMMINENTLY DANGEROUS SO
AS TO CAUSE DEATH— CLAUSE (4) OF SECTION 300 ........... 798
WHEN CULPABLE HOMICIDE IS NOT MURDER ............................ 800
DISTINCTION BETWEEN MURDER AND CULPABLE HOMICIDE ....... 810
ENCOUNTER DEATHS: ARE THESE HOMICIDES? ............................ 814
PART C
DEATH BY NEGLIGENCE
RASH OR NEGLIGENT ACT ........................................................ 819
ABSENCE OF INTENTIONAL VIOLENCE ........................................ 821
DEATH MUST BE THE DIRECT RESULT ........................................ 821
RASH AND NEGLIGENT ACT IN DRIVING ALONG A
PUBLIC HIGHWAY ................................................................ 824
RASH OR NEGLIGENT ACT IN MEDICAL TREATMENT ................... 825
PUNISHMENT ............................................................................ 827
PART D
DOWRY DEATH
PRESUMPTION AS TO DOWRY DEATH.......................................... 834
PART E
ATTEMPT TO COMMIT MURDER AND CULPABLE HOMICIDE
SCOPE OF SECTION 307 ........................................................... 835
MEANING OF ATTEMPT ............................................................. 838
PART F
SUICIDE
PRESUMPTION AS TO ABETMENT ................................................ 842
ATTEMPT TO COMMIT SUICIDE .................................................. 843
PART G
THUGS
SCOPE OF SECTION 310 ........................................................... 844
PART H
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 35
Punishment for Murder and Culpable Homicide .......................849
PART A
PUNISHMENT FOR MURDER
SCOPE OF SECTION 302 ........................................................... 849
LIFE IMPRISONMENT THE RULE, DEATH SENTENCE AN
EXCEPTION—CHOICE OF SENTENCE .................................... 850
DELAY IN EXECUTION OF DEATH SENTENCE—AN
EXTENUATING FACTOR? ....................................................... 858
CONVICTION OF A PREGNANT WOMAN..................................... 860
CONVICTION OF A MINOR ....................................................... 860
LESSER SENTENCE TO CO-ACCUSED ............................................ 861
IMPRISONMENT FOR LIFE ........................................................... 862
PART B
PUNISHMENT FOR MURDER BY A LIFE-CONVICT
PART C
PUNISHMENT FOR CULPABLE HOMICIDE
PART D
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 36
Offences Relating to Children ....................................................871
PART A
CAUSING MISCARRIAGE
PART B
INJURY TO AN UNBORN CHILD
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF SECTION 316 .................................. 876
PART C
ABANDONMENT AND EXPOSURE OF AN INFANT
PART D
CONCEALMENT OF BIRTH OF A CHILD
PART E
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 37
Hurt and Grievous Hurt ............................................................883
SIMPLE HURT ........................................................................... 883
GRIEVOUS HURT ....................................................................... 886
CAUSING HURT OR GRIEVOUS HURT BY DANGEROUS
WEAPONS ........................................................................... 889
CAUSING HURT OR GRIEVOUS HURT TO EXTORT PROPERTY ........ 891
CAUSING HURT BY MEANS OF POISON ...................................... 892
CAUSING HURT OR GRIEVOUS HURT TO EXTORT
CONFESSION OR COMPEL RESTORATION OF PROPERTY .......... 893
CAUSING HURT OR GRIEVOUS HURT TO DETER
PUBLIC SERVANTS ................................................................ 895
CAUSING HURT OR GRIEVOUS HURT ON PROVOCATION ............. 898
CAUSING HURT OR GRIEVOUS HURT BY ENDANGERING
LIFE OR PERSONAL SAFETY OF OTHERS ................................ 900
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ........................................................... 901
CHAPTER 38
Criminal Force and Assault ........................................................905
PART A
CRIMINAL FORCE
FORCE ..................................................................................... 905
CRIMINAL FORCE ...................................................................... 907
FORCE AND CRIMINAL FORCE ................................................... 909
PART B
ASSAULT
INGREDIENTS ............................................................................ 910
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSAULT, CRIMINAL
FORCE AND HURT .............................................................. 912
PUNISHMENT FOR ASSAULT OR CRIMINAL FORCE ........................ 913
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF ASSAULT OR CRIMINAL FORCE ............... 915
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 39
Wrongful Restraint and Wrongful Confinement ........................927
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 927
PART A
WRONGFUL RESTRAINT
PART B
WRONGFUL CONFINEMENT
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 40
Kidnapping and Abduction .........................................................937
PART A
KIDNAPPING
KIDNAPPING FROM INDIA .......................................................... 937
KIDNAPPING FROM LAWFUL GUARDIANSHIP ................................ 938
PUNISHMENT FOR KIDNAPPING .................................................. 940
PART B
ABDUCTION
PART C
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTION
KIDNAPPING OR MAIMING FOR BEGGING .................................. 943
ABDUCTING TO MURDER .......................................................... 944
KIDNAPPING FOR RANSOM ........................................................ 945
KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTING WITH INTENT TO
SECRET AND WRONGFUL CONFINEMENT .............................. 946
KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTING A WOMAN TO COMPEL HER
MARRIAGE, ETC .................................................................. 946
PROCURATION OF MINOR GIRL ................................................ 949
KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTING TO SUBJECT PERSON
TO GRIEVOUS HURT ........................................................... 951
WRONGFULLY CONCEALING OR KEEPING IN CONFINEMENT
A KIDNAPPED OR ABDUCTED PERSON .................................. 951
KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTING CHILD UNDER TEN YEARS
WITH INTENT TO STEAL FROM ITS PERSON .......................... 952
PART D
SLAVERY AND FORCED LABOUR
PART E
SALE OR PURCHASE OF MINORS FOR IMMORAL PURPOSES
PART F
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 41
Sexual Offences ..........................................................................961
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 961
PART A
RAPE
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ............................................................. 964
PUNISHMENT FOR RAPE ............................................................. 972
EVIDENCE OF PROSECUTRIX ....................................................... 979
DISCLOSURE OF IDENTITY OF RAPE VICTIMS .............................. 981
ASSISTANCE TO VICTIMS OF RAPE .............................................. 983
PART B
UNNATURAL OFFENCES
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
RAPE ........................................................................................ 987
UNNATURAL OFFENCES .............................................................. 993
CHAPTER 42
Theft and Extortion ...................................................................995
PART A
THEFT
INGREDIENTS ............................................................................ 997
BONA FIDE DISPUTE OR CLAIM ............................................... 1012
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LARCENY AND THEFT ............................ 1015
PUNISHMENT FOR THEFT ........................................................ 1017
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF THEFT ................................................ 1017
PART B
EXTORTION
INGREDIENTS .......................................................................... 1021
THEFT AND EXTORTION: DISTINCTION .................................... 1023
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF EXTORTION ........................................ 1025
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
THEFT ................................................................................... 1027
EXTORTION ............................................................................ 1028
CHAPTER 43
Robbery and Dacoity ................................................................1031
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1031
PART A
ROBBERY
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ........................................................... 1032
POSSESSION OF STOLEN PROPERTY ........................................... 1036
PUNISHMENT FOR ROBBERY ..................................................... 1037
PUNISHMENT FOR BEING A MEMBER OF GANG OF ROBBERS .... 1037
ATTEMPT TO COMMIT ROBBERY .............................................. 1038
AGGRAVATED FORM OF ROBBERY ............................................. 1038
PART B
DACOITY
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ........................................................... 1040
SENTENCE FOR DACOITY ......................................................... 1041
AGGRAVATED FORM OF DACOITY ............................................. 1042
OFFENCES CONNECTED WITH DACOITY ................................... 1044
PART C
MINIMUM SENTENCE TO BE AWARDED IN CERTAIN CASES OF
ROBBERY AND DACOITY
PART D
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 44
Criminal Misappropriation and Breach of Trust ......................1051
PART A
CRIMINAL MISAPPROPRIATION
TEMPORARY MISAPPROPRIATION ............................................... 1058
DIFFERENCE FROM ENGLISH LAW ............................................. 1059
DISTINCTION BETWEEN THEFT AND CRIMINAL
MISAPPROPRIATION ........................................................... 1060
AGGRAVATED FORM OF CRIMINAL MISAPPROPRIATION ............... 1060
SCOPE OF THE SECTION ......................................................... 1061
PART B
CRIMINAL BREACH OF TRUST
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ........................................................... 1063
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF CRIMINAL BREACH OF TRUST .............. 1069
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CRIMINAL MISAPPROPRIATION OF PROPERTY ............................. 1071
CRIMINAL BREACH OF TRUST .................................................. 1072
CHAPTER 45
Receipt of Stolen Property ........................................................1075
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1075
PART A
RECEIVING STOLEN PROPERTY
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ........................................................... 1076
PART B
RECEIVING PROPERTY STOLEN IN THE COMMISSION
OF A DACOITY
PART C
HABITUALLY DEALING IN STOLEN PROPERTY
PART D
CONCEALING AND DISPOSING OF STOLEN PROPERTY
PART E
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 46
Cheating ...................................................................................1085
SCOPE OF SECTION 415: ‘CHEATING’ ...................................... 1086
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF CHEATING ..................................... 1087
IMPORTANT INGREDIENTS OF DECEPTION AND INDUCEMENT ..... 1089
CRITICAL ASPECTS RELATING TO THE OFFENCE
OF CHEATING .................................................................. 1093
ON THE ISSUE OF DAMAGES CAUSED OR LIKELY TO
BE CAUSED ....................................................................... 1095
CIVIL LIABILITY VERSUS CRIMINAL LIABILITY ............................. 1097
VEXATIOUS CRIMINAL PROCEEDING IN CIVIL DISPUTE:
IMPOSITION OF COSTS ...................................................... 1097
PUNISHMENT FOR CHEATING ................................................... 1098
CHEATING BY PERSONATION .................................................... 1099
CHEATING OUT OF FIDUCIARY RELATION ................................. 1100
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM ......................................................... 1101
CHAPTER 47
Mischief ....................................................................................1105
LAW RELATING TO MISCHIEF: AN OVERVIEW ............................ 1105
PART A
MISCHIEF
SCOPE .................................................................................... 1107
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ........................................................... 1108
PART B
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF MISCHIEF
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF MISCHIEF BASED ON THE VALUE
OF DAMAGE CAUSED ........................................................ 1113
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF MISCHIEF BASED ON THE
NATURE OF PROPERTY DAMAGED....................................... 1114
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF MISCHIEF BASED ON THE
METHOD ADOPTED TO CAUSE DAMAGE ARSON .................. 1117
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF MISCHIEF BASED ON OTHER
CRIMINAL MOTIVES INFLUENCING THE ACT ....................... 1121
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 48
Criminal Trespass ....................................................................1125
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1125
PART A
CRIMINAL TRESPASS
ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS ........................................................... 1126
PART B
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF CRIMINAL TRESPASS
ESSENTIAL INTRODUCTION ....................................................... 1132
PART C
DISHONESTLY BREAKING OPEN A RECEPTACLE
CONTAINING PROPERTY
PART D
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 49
Offences Relating to Documents .............................................1147
PART A
FORGERY
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1147
WHAT CONSTITUTES FORGERY? ................................................ 1148
PART B
FORGERY—LAW IN INDIA
SCOPE OF SECTIONS 463, 464 AND 465, INDIAN PENAL
CODE 1860 ..................................................................... 1152
MAKING A FALSE DOCUMENT OR FALSE
ELECTRONIC RECORD........................................................ 1153
PART C
NECESSARY INGREDIENTS FOR PROVING FORGERY
RELATED TO PART OF DOCUMENT
WHEN ATTESTATION WOULD BE FORGERY ................................ 1157
ANTE-DATING A DOCUMENT ................................................... 1157
EXECUTION WITHOUT AUTHORITY ........................................... 1157
FRAUDULENT ALTERATION ........................................................ 1158
INTENTION TO DEFRAUD: IS DEPRIVATION OR LOSS
OF PROPERTY ESSENTIAL? .................................................. 1160
PART D
AGGRAVATED FORMS OF FORGERY
FORGERY OF A RECORD OF COURT OR PUBLIC REGISTER ......... 1163
CASE LAWS ............................................................................. 1168
PART E
MAKING COUNTERFEIT SEAL, ETC, WITH INTENT
TO COMMIT FORGERY
PART F
FRAUDULENT CANCELLATION OR DESTRUCTION, ETC, OF
VALUABLE SECURITY, WILL, ETC
PART G
FALSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS
PART H
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 50
Offences Relating to Property Marks and Currency-notes ......1187
PART A
OFFENCES RELATING TO PROPERTY MARKS
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1187
BASIC PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE PROTECTION OF
PROPERTY MARKS .............................................................. 1188
LIMITATIONS OF PROSECUTION ................................................ 1189
PROPERTY MARK—DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF THE LAW ......... 1189
SCOPE OF THE LAW CONCERNING PROPERTY MARKS ................ 1190
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TRADE MARK AND PROPERTY MARK ..... 1190
OFFENCES RELATING TO COUNTERFEITING ANY
PROPERTY MARK USED BY A PERSON ................................. 1193
IMPORTANT DIMENSIONS ON THE ISSUE OF INFRINGEMENT
OF PROPERTY MARK ......................................................... 1195
PART B
OFFENCES RELATING TO CURRENCY-NOTES AND
BANK-NOTES
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1198
SCOPE OF SECTIONS 489A TO 489E, INDIAN PENAL
CODE 1860 ..................................................................... 1201
LAW AGAINST COUNTERFEITING COVERS
ALL CURRENCIES ............................................................... 1202
BASIC TEST TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT CURRENCY ..................... 1204
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 51
Defamation ..............................................................................1207
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1207
PART A
GENERAL DISCUSSION
ANALYSIS OF THE OFFENCE OF DEFAMATION ........................... 1212
REPUTATION ........................................................................... 1212
PUBLICATION .......................................................................... 1213
IMPUTATIONS CONCERNING ‘ANY PERSON’ ................................ 1217
INTENTION TO INJURE ............................................................ 1218
PART B
ANALYSIS OF PROVISIONS OF SECTIONS 499 AND 500,
INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860
EXPLANATION 1: DEFAMATION OF THE DEAD ........................... 1219
EXPLANATION 2: DEFAMATION OF A COMPANY OR A
COLLECTION
OF PERSONS ..................................................................... 1219
EXPLANATION 3: DEFAMATION BY INNUENDO ........................... 1224
EXPLANATION 4: WHAT IS HARMING REPUTATION? .................... 1224
EXCEPTIONS PROVIDED IN SECTION 499 .................................. 1226
ON THE SCOPE OF SECTIONS 499 AND 500, INDIAN PENAL
CODE 1860 ..................................................................... 1250
PART C
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
CHAPTER 52
Criminal Intimidation, Insult and Annoyance .........................1257
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1257
PART A
CRIMINAL INTIMIDATION
DEFINITION OF CRIMINAL INTIMIDATION ................................. 1258
PUNISHMENT FOR CRIMINAL INTIMIDATION .............................. 1262
IS A PERSON ACCUSED UNDER SECTION 506 ENTITLED
FOR PROBATION? .............................................................. 1264
CASELAW ................................................................................ 1265
CRIMINAL INTIMIDATION THROUGH ANONYMOUS
COMMUNICATION AND CRIMINAL INDUCEMENT ................. 1266
PART B
INTENTIONAL INSULT
INTENTIONAL INSULT WITH INTENT TO PROVOKE BREACH
OF PEACE ........................................................................ 1267
PUBLIC MISCHIEF ................................................................... 1272
INSULT TO THE MODESTY OF A WOMAN ................................ 1275
PART C
ANNOYANCE
MISCONDUCT IN PUBLIC BY A DRUNKEN PERSON .................... 1279
PART D
PROPOSALS FOR REFORM
Index .............................................................................................. 1283
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