Environmental Law In India

New Addition - MLJ Civil Court Manual

‘Environmental law in India’ is an exhaustive study of the growth of the law relating to environment in India. The third edition highlights the various aspects of environmental regime law of public nuisance and civil remedies, protection of forest habitat, natural resources and coastal zones, control of pollution, liability for environmental torts, constitutional mandate for environmental protection, judicial review of decisions affecting environment and environmental impact assessment processes. It contains a qualitative analysis of the laws pertaining to the field, reference to relevant international conventions and comments on recent and updated case law, making it an indispensable tool for legal practitioners, decision makers, environmentalists and students of law and environment

Preface ....................................................................................................... v
Preface to the Second Edition .................................................................... vii
Preface to the First Edition ......................................................................... ix
Contents .................................................................................................... xi
Table of Cases ........................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction .................................................................................. 1
RELATION WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES ............................................. 3
SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW ................................................ 3
Decisions of Court ....................................................................... 3
Juristic Personality and Locus Standi .......................................... 4
Public Interest Cases ................................................................... 6
Statutes ........................................................................................ 7
RELATION WITH OTHER LAWS ....................................................... 7
INDIA’S ANCIENT TRADITIONS ...................................................... 10
PROVISIONS IN THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA .............................. 11
CHAPTER 2
Public Nuisance and Civil Remedies ............................................ 15
A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE ........................................................... 15
NUISANCE AND THE CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 1973 ......... 18
PUBLIC NUISANCE: EARLIER DAYS ................................................. 18
THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘NUISANCE’ ................................................ 20
PATH OF ACTIVISM ..................................................................... 22
The Ratlam Case .......................................................................23
Response of High Courts ..........................................................25
Krishna Gopal: A Critique ........................................................26

Contours of Public Nuisance ....................................................27
CONFLICTING LAWS AND JURISDICTION ....................................... 30
Different Views ..........................................................................30
No Implied Powers When The Laws Occupy
Different Fields ..................................................................32
The Apex Court Resolves The Controversy ...............................32
CIVIL REMEDIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS ........................... 34
CHAPTER 3
Protection of Forest Habitat ........................................................ 39
FOREST LAW IN INDIA ................................................................. 40
Reserved Forests .........................................................................40
Forest As Source of Revenue ......................................................42
Forest Conservation: A Leap Forward ........................................43
NEW PERSPECTIVES TOWARDS FOREST LAWS .................................. 44
SUSTAINABLE USE OF FORESTS: THE RIGHTS OF FOREST
DWELLERS ............................................................................ 45
Tribal Rights to Minor Forests and Livelihood .........................45
Tribal Lands ...............................................................................47
Tribal People: Friends or Foes ....................................................48
Tribals Ousted in Development ................................................49
Empowerment of Tribal People .................................................50
FOREST CONSERVATION: ROLE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT ............ 52
Prior Approval by the Central Government ..............................52
The Godavarman Cases: The High-water Mark In Forest
Protection ...........................................................................56
The Influence of Godavarman Cases .........................................58
Net Present Value (NPV) ..........................................................59
Special Purpose Vehicle .............................................................61
Sawmills .....................................................................................62
‘Godavarman’ Committees: A Dilemma or an
Escape Route? ....................................................................64
ECO-TOURISM AND FOREST PROTECTION ..................................... 64
WILDLIFE LAW: THE BACKGROUND .............................................. 67
Amendments to WLPA..............................................................68
WILDLIFE: JUDICIAL PERSPECTIVES ................................................ 70
Immunisation Programmes .......................................................74
In-situ Protection ......................................................................75
Protection Against Trading In Wildlife .....................................75

Possession Of Trophies ...............................................................77
Plugging The loophole: Imported Ivory ...................................78
Trapping Of Birds .....................................................................80
ADMINISTRATIVE ATTEMPTS .......................................................... 80
PROTECTION OF FOREST HABITAT: A CRITIQUE ............................ 81
CHAPTER 4
Coastal Zone Management ......................................................... 85
MODELS OF COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT.................................. 86
United States of America ...........................................................86
United Kingdom .......................................................................88
Sri Lanka ....................................................................................89
INDIA ......................................................................................... 90
Physical Limits of Zones ...........................................................90
Prohibitions and Exceptions .....................................................91
Harvesting of Groundwater .......................................................92
Construction Activities ..............................................................93
Regulation of Permissible Activities: The
Environmental Clearance ...................................................93
Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) .............................94
Classification of Zones ...............................................................95
Guidelines for Beach Resorts and Hotels ..................................97
JUDICIARY ON COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT............................... 98
Resorts and Hotels on the Beach ..............................................98
Aquaculture in Coastal Zones ................................................ 100
Development Projects in CRZ ............................................... 103
Multi-storied Buildings on the Coast .................................... 104
FROM REGULATION TO SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT .................... 105
Integrated Management ......................................................... 106
Overcoming Coastal Woes ...................................................... 106
The Changing Role of Authorities ......................................... 107
Coastal Zone: New Parameters ............................................... 107
Funding .................................................................................. 108
CRZ to CMZ: The Proposed Classification .......................... 108
CRZ TO CMZ: DRAFT NOTIFICATIONS ........................................ 110
‘Setback Line’ ......................................................................... 111
Categorization of Zones .......................................................... 111
CENTRE-STATE COOPERATION NECESSARY FOR CZM ................... 113

CHAPTER 5
Resource Management ...............................................................115
RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT .......................................................... 115
LAND RESOURCES ...................................................................... 117
Mining and Natural Resources: Ecological Balance .............. 118
Ordinary Earth: Resource Protection ..................................... 119
Change in Land Use: Conversion of Open Space .................. 120
Land Use Change and Agonies in Residential Colonies ........ 123
Sealing ..................................................................................... 124
Urban Areas: Industry Location and Relocation .................... 125
Brick Kilns and Stone Crushers .............................................. 126
ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS ................................................. 127
WETLANDS ............................................................................... 128
Wise Use of Wetlands: An Obligation ................................... 129
Conversion of Wetlands .......................................................... 130
Exploitation of Wetlands ........................................................ 131
WATER RESOURCES .................................................................... 132
Inter-state Use of Water: War or Co-operation? ..................... 132
Inter-linking of Rivers ............................................................ 136
Vanishing Water Bodies .......................................................... 138
Water Logging in Cities .......................................................... 141
GROUNDWATER ......................................................................... 141
Groundwater Utilisation ........................................................ 141
Depletion of Groundwater ..................................................... 142
Impact of Aquaculture on Groundwater ................................ 143
Rights of Superjacent Ownership Loses its Validity .............. 145
Need for Legislation ............................................................... 146
COMPASSION FOR ANIMALS: PROTECTION OF OTHER LIVING
CREATURES ......................................................................... 149
Restrictions on Animal Racing ............................................... 149
Nuisance of Wandering Animals ............................................ 151
PROTECTION OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS .................................... 151
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY .............................................................. 152
Convention on Bio-diversity .................................................. 153
The Indian Legislation ........................................................... 155

CHAPTER 6
Control of Pollution ...................................................................159
POLLUTION OF WATER ............................................................. 159
DEFINITION UNDER THE WATER ACT ........................................ 160
CENTRAL AND STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS ................... 162
The Central Board .................................................................. 162
State Board ............................................................................. 162
The Power to Issue Directions ............................................... 162
Conditions of Consent ........................................................... 163
Structure of Board .................................................................. 164
AGENCY OF CONTROL: A CRITIQUE OF THE PROVISIONS ............ 165
Powers and Functions ............................................................. 165
Structure ................................................................................. 165
Procedure ................................................................................ 166
1988 AMENDMENT ................................................................... 168
WATER ACT AND GROUNDWATER POLLUTION ............................ 169
AIR POLLUTION ........................................................................ 170
POLLUTION CONTROL: JUDICIAL PERSPECTIVES ............................ 171
Strengthening the Hands of Agencies .................................... 171
Lethargy of Boards .................................................................. 173
Negligence of Other Authorities ............................................ 174
Monitoring Observance of Conditions .................................. 175
Pollution Control Board: Powers and Responsibilities .......... 177
The Board is to be Above-board ............................................ 179
Collection and Analysis of Samples: Safeguards ..................... 179
Boards Forgetting its Duties .................................................. 181
Direction to Close an Industry, not a Blanket Power ............ 181
DILEMMAS OF INSTITUTIONAL CONTROL .................................... 182
STANDARDS OF CONTROL ......................................................... 184
Pollution Offence: Corporate Criminal Liability ................... 184
Sharing of Cost in Pollution Control ..................................... 184
Exemption of a Particular Industry from Prohibition ............ 186
POLLUTION FROM PLASTICS AND POLYTHENE ............................. 186
NOISE POLLUTION .................................................................... 188
Loudspeakers .......................................................................... 188
Other Sources ......................................................................... 189
Damages for Injury by Fire Crackers ...................................... 191
SMOKING ................................................................................. 191

POLLUTION: CUMULATIVE EFFECTS ............................................. 192
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL AREAS ............................................... 193
AIR POLLUTION AND CLEANER TECHNOLOGY ............................. 194
BAR OF JURISDICTION .............................................................. 194
CHAPTER 7
Environment Act ........................................................................197
DELEGATED LEGISLATION: THE METHODOLOGY OF EPA ............. 201
The Environment Rules ......................................................... 202
Environment Audit ................................................................ 204
Hazardous Substances and Industries .................................... 205
ECOMARK ................................................................................. 207
Control of Noise ..................................................................... 208
Disposal of Bio-medical Waste ............................................... 209
The ‘Ozone’ Rules ................................................................. 210
DELEGATION OF POWERS ........................................................... 211
EPA AND JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION .......................................... 214
CHAPTER 8
Constitution and Environment ..................................................223
RIGHT TO LIVE WITH HUMAN DIGNITY .................................... 224
INITIAL RELUCTANCE ................................................................. 224
HIGH COURTS BECOME MORE ACTIVE ....................................... 227
THE APEX COURT STRIKES ......................................................... 230
Open Space ............................................................................. 231
Extension of the Right to Life ................................................ 232
Misery of a Village .................................................................. 232
Rehabilitation: A Right .......................................................... 234
Right to a Healthy Environment: Universal Acceptance ....... 235
CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATE: COMBINED EFFECT
OF ECO-PROVISIONS IN THE CONSTITUTION ........................ 237
CONFLICTS AND RECONCILIATION ............................................. 240
Freedom of Speech and Noise Pollution ................................ 240
Religious Freedom and Environment..................................... 241
Relaxation: Relief or Hazard? ................................................. 243
Compassion For Living Creatures ........................................... 243
REGULATORY POWER.................................................................. 245

Statutory Silence Does Not Rule Out Regulation ................ 246
How to Bring Trade and Business to
Environmental Discipline ............................................... 246
LEGISLATIVE CONFLICTS SOLVED ................................................. 248
Centre-State Harmony ........................................................... 248
CAMPA Fund: Who Should Share ........................................ 250
Duties in Federal Set-up ........................................................ 251
A CRITIQUE .............................................................................. 251
CHAPTER 9
Environmental Hazards:
Mass Tort Action .................................................................255
HAZARDOUS AND INHERENTLY DANGEROUS ACTIVITIES:
ABSOLUTE LIABILITY ............................................................ 256
BHOPAL LITIGATION .................................................................. 259
Doctrine of Parens Patriae in Mass Tort Cases ....................... 259
Comments on the Keenan Judgment ..................................... 260
From Interim Order to Compromise ..................................... 261
The Compromise Award: Mixed Comments ......................... 262
Compromise Judgment Reviewed .......................................... 263
Mehta Principle and Review Judgment ................................. 265
Is the Mehta Principle Only Obiter? ..................................... 266
COMPENSATION FOR OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES DIAGNOSED
AFTER RETIREMENT ............................................................. 266
Mehta Reiterated and Explained ........................................... 267
PUBLIC LIABILITIES INSURANCE ACT 1991 ................................... 269
CHAPTER 10
Environmental Litigation and
Judicial Review ......................................................................273
CLASS ACTION AND PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION ....................... 273
EVOLUTION OF DOCTRINES ....................................................... 276
The Polluter Pays Principle .................................................... 276
Precautionary Principle .......................................................... 277
Sustainable Development ....................................................... 283
OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS ............................................................ 287
Balance the Conflicting Values ............................................... 287

Protection of Social Environment ........................................... 288
Filling Gaps in Law and Lacunae in Administration ............. 288
Revealing Skeletons in Administrative Cupboard .................. 290
Promoting Environmental Awareness and Education ............ 292
PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGTION FOR ENVIRONMENT, NOT FOR
PRIVATE GAINS .................................................................... 293
Bias and Blackmailing ............................................................ 293
Bona fides of Litigants ............................................................ 294
Private Interest Litigation ....................................................... 295
USE OF EXPERTISE .................................................................... 296
Reference to Expert Opinion ................................................. 296
Nayudu Case .......................................................................... 298
DEFERENTIAL ATTITUDE TO ENVIRONMENTAL DECISIONS ............. 299
Deference to Administrative Wisdom .................................... 300
Strategy Shift Needed ............................................................. 302
Silent Valley to Narmada: A Full Circle ................................ 303
ALTERNATIVE STRATEGY: ENVIRONMENT COURTS .......................... 304
The Law Commission for Environment Courts ..................... 306
PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS AND LIMITATIONS .............................. 308
No Fine Without a Procedure Established by Law ................ 308
Fairness in Issuing Directions ................................................. 309
Doing Complete Justice ......................................................... 310
Laches ..................................................................................... 310
CONTEMPT AGAINST VIOLATION OF ENVIRONMENT .................... 311
CHAPTER 11
Environmental Impact Assessment ............................................315
PREVENTION BETTER THAN CURE .............................................. 315
COMPLEX QUESTIONS ................................................................ 316
THE MANDATORY MODEL ......................................................... 317
NEPA: AN ILLUSTRATION ............................................................ 318
PLEAS AGAINST AND IN FAVOUR ................................................ 319
THE DISCRETIONARY MODEL ..................................................... 319
Merits ..................................................................................... 319
Demerits ................................................................................. 320
BHOPAL: VICTIM OF A DISCRETIONARY MODEL ......................... 320
DEFECTIVE ASSESSMENT .............................................................. 322
DISCRETIONARY MODEL: JUDICIAL REACTION ............................. 323

THE INDIAN MODEL ............................................................... 325
EIA Notification 1994 ........................................................... 325
EIA Notification 2006 ........................................................... 326
(A) Environmental Clearance Processes for
New Projects ................................................................... 326
(B) Expansion or Modernisation ............................................ 329
(C) Grant or Rejection ........................................................... 329
(D) Post-clearance Monitoring and Transferability ................ 330
(E) Projects and Activities Requiring Environmental
Clearance ......................................................................... 330
(F) Time Limit ........................................................................ 333
NARMADA CASE ........................................................................ 334
The Majority .......................................................................... 334
Dissent .................................................................................... 337
The Narmada Case: The Plethora of Questions .................... 338
THE TEHRI DAM CASE .............................................................. 338
Conditional Clearance ............................................................ 339
The Dissent ............................................................................ 342
IMPACT OF KONKAN RAILWAYS .................................................. 343
IMPACT OF MINING ................................................................. 344
REHABILITATING SICK INDUSTRIES ............................................... 346
Acquisition for Information Technology Industry ................. 346
CRITIQUE OF THE INDIAN MODEL ............................................ 347
CHAPTER 12
Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making ...........351
MODES OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION ............................................ 351
WHY PUBLIC PARTICIPATION? .................................................... 352
Bridging The Gap................................................................... 353
Improving The Quality of Decisions ..................................... 353
Generating Public Confidence ............................................... 354
EXPERIENCE IN OTHER COUNTRIES ............................................. 354
United States of America ........................................................ 354
United Kingdom .................................................................... 355
Other Countries ..................................................................... 357
INDIAN LAW ............................................................................. 358
PUBLIC INQUIRY ........................................................................ 360
PUBLIC CONSULTATION .............................................................. 361
Public Hearing ....................................................................... 361

Proceedings in the Inquiry ..................................................... 362
Responses from Persons having Plausible Stake ..................... 363
Project Proponent that Matters .............................................. 363
STANDARDS FOR IMPACT HEARING ............................................. 364
CITIZEN SUITS TO PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT ........................ 367
Bibliography ..................................................................................... 371
Index ................................................................................................ 385