Datar Commentary On Constitution Of India (3 Vols.)

"The second edition of this book is now ready - five years after the first edition was released in 2001 containing an exhaustive commentary with case-law references reported upto (2006) 7 SCC on the Constitution of India as amended by the 94th Constitutional Amendment Act. Also containing text of Constitutional Documents from 1800 to 2006 with full text of the Constitutional Amendment Acts upto 94th Amendment with their Statement of Objects & Reasons. Appendices cover various texts of foreign Constitutions including text of Constitution of the United States of America, The Human Rights Act, 1998 (UK), The European Convention on Human Rights, The South African Constitution, The Australian Constitution, The Canadian Constitution, 1867, The Canadian Constitution, 1982, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1966. Also containing text of Venkatachalliah Committee Summary of Recommendations of National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution and Rules framed by Various High Courts under Articles 226 and 227 of the Constitution.""Momentous changes have taken place in the last five years in the field of Constitution of India. In the last five years, the Supreme Court has delivered several important decisions in the areas of public employment, reservations in education and employment, taxation and on the scope of compensatory tax under Articles 301 to 304. These and much more important judicial decisions have necessitated a complete revision of the first edition. This is, virtually, a fresh commentary containing an exhaustive and critical notes on the Constitution of India with torrential downpour of case law references of the Supreme Court of India and various High Courts on the subject.""In the present new edition author has taken steps to re-arrange the case laws in more orderly fashion under distinctive topical headings. Some portions of the commentary have been re-written. It is hoped the present new second edition will be found more useful to our readers, professionals and the Bench than its past edition."

Arrangement of Articles
DATAR
COMMENTARY ON
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
SECOND EDITION, 2007 IN 3 VOLUMES
CONTENTS OF VOLUME I, II & III
VOLUME 1
ARRANGEMENT OF ARTICLES
ARTICLE PAGE
Preamble 1
1. Legislative History 1
2. Preamble-noble and grand vision 2
3. Preamble and Objectives Resolution 2
4. Fundamental features indicated in the Preamble 2
5. Preamble-part of the Constitution 3
6. Preamble and Secularism 4
7. Preamble and socialism 5
8. Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles 6
9. Preamble-general principles 10
PART I
THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY
Art. 1. Name and territory of the Union 11
1. Legislative History 11
2. Article 1(3)(c) 12
3. Article 1 can be amended 12
4. Preamble does not limit sovereign powers 12
5. British Parliamentary sovereignty not applicable in India 13
6. Sovereignty-concept in a democracy 13
7. “Acquired”–meaning of 13
8. Acquisition–effect of 14
xxix
9. Article 1(3) and 3–assimilation of territory 14
Art. 2. Admission or establishment of new States. 14
1. Scope 15
2. Extra-territorial operation 15
Art. 2A. [Repealed] 15
1. Legislative History 16
Art. 3. Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States 16
1. Legislative History 17
2. Reorganization of States–impact on service conditions 17
3. No implied power to cede territory 18
4. Cession of territory amendment under Article 368 necessary 18
5. “Cession of territory–right to own property” 18
6. Article 3–scope of proviso 18
7. State–includes Union Territory 19
8. Proclamation under Article 356–effect 19
9. “Writ to form new state – not maintainable” 19
10. Power is constituent in nature 19
Art. 4. Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amend-ment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and Supplemental, incidental and consequential matters 20
1. Legislative competence cannot be questioned 20
2. Amendment-meaning of 21
PART II
CITIZENSHIP
Art. 5. Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution 23
1. Scope 23
2. Citizenship/Domicile–difference 24
3. Citizenship-burden of proof 24
4. Domicile-definition of 25
5. Loss of citizenship 26
6. Articles 5 and 6 to be considered together 26
7. Article 7-exception to Articles 5 and 6 26
8. Article 5(c): Indian citizenship-animus manendi essential 26
9. Article 5: Medical College and State Domicile 27
Art.6. Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan 27
1. Non-obstante clauses in Article 6, 7 and 8-effect of 28
2. Migration-meaning of 28
Art.7. Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan 29
1. Article 7-effect on Article 5 and 6 29
2. Migration to Pakistan–scope 30
3. Domicile and migration 30
4. Domicile–application to minors 31
Art.8. Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin outside India 31
1. Scope-excludes domicile 32
2. Article 8 - effect of 32
Art.9. Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens 32
1. Voluntary acquisition of citizenship–scope 33
2. Foreign State-meaning of 33
Art.10. Continuance to the rights of citizenship. 33
Art. 11. Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law 34
1. Scope 34
2. Loss of citizenship 35
3. Jurisdiction of Courts 35
4. Citizenship-power of Parliament unfettered by Article 5-10 35
PART III
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
General
Art. 12. Definition 37
1. “State”-meaning and Scope 37
2. Article 12 and Article 131 38
3. Other Authority 38
4. State-whether includes corporations 39
5. Authority-inclusion of other bodies 42
6. Government Companies 42
7. “Under the control of the Government of India”-effect of 43
8. State/other authorities-illustrative cases 43
Companies/Corporations 43
Educational Institutions 45
9. Other cases 45
Association of nationalised banks is State 46
10. Authorities which are not “State” 46
Judicial/Quasi judicial body 47
v11. Co-operative Societies-whether “State” 48
Art. 13. Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights 48
1. Legislative History 49
2. Existing laws-effect of inconsistency 50
3. Clause (1)-No retrospective effect 50
4. Clause (1)-No amendment or repeal 51
5. Doctrine of eclipse 51
6. Clause (2)-Scope 53
7. Clause (2)-Operation against non-citizens 54
8. “Void”-meaning in clause (2) 55
9. Void enactment-two tests 55
10. Void-law valid till declared void 55
11. Declaration by court-effect 55
12. Doctrine of severability 56
13. Direct impact on fundamental rights-essential 56
14. Article 13(2) and other Constitutional Provisions 57
15. Abridgement-direct or indirect 57
16. Presumption of constitutionality 58
17. Fundamental rights-does not include right to contest elections 58
18. Economic legislation-duty of court 58
19. Waiver of fundamental rights 58
20. “Law” and “laws” in force- Clause (3) 59
21. Certified standing orders-legal status 60
22. Clause (4)-protection to Constitutional amendments 61
Right to Equality
Art. 14. Equality before law 61
1. Article 14-ambit and scope 63
2. Equality-basic feature 64
3. Equality - different aspects 65
4. Applicable to all persons 65
5. State - meaning 65
6. Article 14 and Res Judicata 66
7. Judgments and Tribunal orders-no violation of Articles 14 and 21 66
8. Classification - General Principles 66
9. Discretion-exercise of 71
10. No equality in illegality 71
11. Class legislation prohibited 72
12. Classification-presumption of constitutionality and judicial restraint 73
13. Classification-Twin tests 74
14. Classification valid but object violative of Article 14 79
15. Sub-classification or micro-classification-permissibility 79
16. Legislation by different states-effect of comparison 80
17. Discrimination-meaning 80
18. Reasonableness-applicable tests 82
19. Protective discrimination-affirmative action-necessity 84
Constitutional aspects of secular democracy 85
20. Discrimination - if can be interfered 86
21. Discrimination between Central and State legislations 86
22. Article 14 and burden of proof 86
23. Equality before the law and equal protection of the law 89
24. Pre-enactment consultation-effect 91
25. Government Policy and arbitrariness 91
26. Change in policy and natural justice 94
27. Arbitrariness and Article 14 94
28. Arbitrariness - executive action and legislation 96
29. Arbitrariness must be manifest 96
30. Economic policy decisions-least interference 97
31. Arbitrariness with passage of time 97
32. Administrative decisions-interference on limited grounds 98
33. Discretionary power-tests 98
34. Discretionary power - possibility of abuse 99
35. Discretionary power-principles of judicial review 100
36. Discretionary power-necessity of 101
37. Discretionary power-guidelines 101
38. Natural justice-no role in economic matters 103
39. Wednesbury’ test and Article 14 103
40. Special Courts/Special procedure-justification of 103
41. Article 14 and procedural laws 107
42. Article 14 and due process 107
43. Natural justice and Article 14 108
44. Implementation of laws in a phased manner 108
45. Article 14-provisions for single person/company 108
46. Article 14 and taxing statutes-general principles 110
47. Wide discretion/latitude permissible 111
48. Taxes according to capacity to pay 112
49. Test of palpable arbitrariness 113
50. Mathematical precision not possible 113
51. Taxing Statutes-Illustrative cases 115
52. Absence of classification-in tax and other laws 115
53. Statutory contract-meaning of 117
54. Tenders, state largesse and Contracts 117
55. Contracts-cancellation cannot be arbitrary 121
56. Price fixation by Government 121
57. Tenders-scope for judicial scrutiny 122
58. Liquor-exclusive privilege 122
59. Discretionary quota-abuse of power 123
60. Summary of principles-applicability 124
61. Judicial review-exercise of contractual power 127
62. “Judicial review and economic legislations” 129
63. Article 14 and delay/laches 129
64. Article 14 and classification on geographical basis 130
65. Article 14 and validating Acts 131
66. Articles 14 and 16 132
67. Seniority lists 136
68. Seniority-other issues 136
69. Appointments, recruitment, promotions 136
70. Need to advertise posts 141
71. Compassionate grounds 141
72. Labour/Service matters-illustrative cases 141
73. Article 14 and Service matters-other cases 143
74. Articles 14 and 16-equal pay for equal work 146
In the following cases, it was held that the principle of equal pay for equal work was violated 150
75. In the following cases, the principle had not been violated 151
76. Equal pay for equal work - burden of proof 152
77. Articles 14, 15 and 16-relation between 152
78. Article 14 and other constitutional provisions 153
79. Choice of date 154
80. Article 14 and executive action 157
81. Doctrine of proportionality 158
82. Procedure 158
83. Medical/Engineering College admissions 158
84. Method of selection and limits of reservation 159
85. Reservation-a few rules of caution 162
86. Nomination-Power of 162
87. Regulations of Medical Council-nature of 163
88. Post graduate courses-permissibility of reservations 163
89. Post-graduate course-in-service candidates 165
90. Post graduate courses-lower marks for SC/ST-permissibility 165
91. Interview/viva voce test-only limited marks 166
92. Merit-meaning of 168
93. Capitation fee-illegal 168
94. Miscellaneous directions 168
95. Legitimate expectation-an aspect of Article 14 170
96. Legitimate expectation and Article 14 170
97. Bias-mere apprehension not enough 170
98. Specific act/provisions held to be violative/not violative of Article 14 171
Income Tax Act 1922/1961? 171
Income-Tax Act, 1961? 172
Customs/Central Excise? 173
Sales Tax? 174
Other Taxes & Duties etc.? 176
Import - Export Policy? 179
Charitable/Religious Institutions? 179
Supreme Court Rules/Court Fees/ Advocates? 180
Criminal Law? 181
Miscellaneous 183
Elections 184
Banking 184
Mines And Minerals 185
Education 185
Rent Control /Tenancy/Buildings Etc.180 186
Protection of Article 31a/31b/ 31c 192
Other Enactments 193
Labour/Service Laws 196
Essential Commodities 204
Electricity/Electricity Supply 205
Co-Operative Societies 206
Religion/Personal Laws 206
Prohibition/State Excise 207
Insurance 207
General 208
99. Income Tax, Sales Tax, Customs & Central Excise, Other Taxes 210
Criminal Law 212
Service Laws/Labour Laws 212
Rent Control/Buildings/Land Reforms/Acquisition 215
Miscellaneous-Education 217
Essential Commodities 218
Miscellaneous - Other Enactments 219
Art. 15. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth 220
1. Legislative history 222
2. Article 15 and other legal/constitutional provisions 222
3. Article 15-relation with Articles 14 and 16 223
4. Preference on caste, religion etc.-embedded in constitutional sche-me 223
5. Articles 15(1) and 15(4)-comparative scope 224
6. Articles 15(1) and 16(2)-comparative scope 224
7. “Discrimination” on grounds only of 224
8. Air-hostesses-lower retirement age not discriminatory 225
9. Protective discrimination-policy of 226
10. Article 15(4)-Scheduled caste-meaning of 226
11. Scheduled Castes-sub-division not permissible 226
12. Effect of statutory provision important 227
13. Place of birth and domicile 227
14. Reservation on basis of domicile valid 227
15. Socially and Educationally Backward Classes 227
16. Medical Council of India - not suited to make reservations 228
17. Article 15(4) and judicial review 228
18. American law and reservation policy 229
19. Caste and Class 230
20. “Class”-what constitutes 231
21. Backward classes-identification of 232
22. Backward classes-periodic examination necessary 233
23. Backward classes-geographical basis 233
24. Backward classes- further division 234
25. Extent of reservation 234
26. Medical seats-reservation 235
27. Reservation-effect of marriage/ adoption 235
28. Reserved category-admission in open quota 236
29. Reservation -restricted to selection 236
30. Article 15(4)-special provisions 237
31. Articles 16(4) and 15(4)–no duty or obligation 237
32. Article 15(4)–All India quota–no reservation 238
33. Women-special provisions 238
34. Affirmative action 239
35. Article 15(4)-classes of citizens 239
Art. 16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment 239
1. Legislative history 241
2. Constitutional amendments valid but subject to restrictions 242
3. Articles 14, 15 and 16 244
4. Article 16 and other constitutional provisions 245
5. Article 16 and Articles 234, 309 and 320 246
6. Article 16 and Arts. 341 and 342 246
7. Article 16 and guided power 247
8. Article 16-inter-relation of various clauses 247
9. Reservation on ground of descent 248
10. Reservation - general observations 248
11. Article 16-general observations 249
12. Public Employment 249
13. No right to employment 250
14. Equality of opportunity 250
15. Selection procedure 252
16. Recruitment from different sources 252
17. Employment or appointment 253
18. Matters relating to employment 254
19. Eligibility criterion and cut off dates 255
20. Deputation 255
21. Appointment, promotion and seniority 255
22. Seniority and year of allotment 256
23. Compassionate Appointment 257
24. Disputes between employees-Government’s role 257
25. Integration of service 257
26. Promotion-reservation of specific percentage 258
27. Promotions wrongly made-effect of 259
28. Promotion with retrospective effect 259
29. Promotion & Disciplinary Inquiry 260
30. Preparation of Seniority List 260
31. Reservation in promotion-clause (4A) 260
32. Reservation for posts in sub-ordinate judiciary 261
33. Transfers 261
34. Article 16(4)-elimination of creamy layer 262
35. Articles 16(4) and (4A)-balancing of interests 262
36. Clause (4A)-effect of Mandal case 263
37. Reservation-meaning depends on context 263
38. Reservation-extent of 264
39. Reservation-50% limit 265
40. Reservation-no fundamental right 265
41. Reservation and reverse discrimination 266
42. Reservation and Roster system 267
43. Roster-seniority between reserved and general candidates 268
44. “Catch-up rule”-applicability 269
45. Reservation is in relation to post 270
46. Reservation-rule of rounding off 270
47. Reservation-lapsing of vacancies 270
48. Vacancies-filling up 271
49. Reservation-no special benefit on marriage/adoption 271
50. Reservation-single post cadre 271
51. Reservation and judicial review 272
52. Reservation on basis of domicile valid 272
53. Mandal Commission Case 272
54. Reservation-basis of caste 277
55. Mandal Commission-follow-up action 278
56. Creamy layer-importance of 279
57. Creamy layer and basic structure 279
58. Creamy layer-impact of exclusion 280
59. Backward classes-identification of 280
60. Backward classes and Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes 281
61. Relaxation of norms for reserved category 281
62. Carry forward rule-permissibility 281
63. Carry forward rule and time factor 282
64. Reservation-miscellaneous issues 283
Art. 17. Abolition of Untouchability 285
1. Untouchability 285
2. Denominational temples–exclusion of certain persons 286
3. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atro-cities Act), 1989 286
Art. 18. Abolition of titles 286
1. Abolition of titles 287
Right to Freedom
Art. 19. Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc. 287
1. Legislative History 290
2. Seven freedoms 291
3. Restrictions-requirements of reasonableness 291
4. Restrictions not by executive instructions 292
5. Reasonable restrictions-necessity of nexus 293
6. Reasonable restrictions-judicial review 294
7. Restrictions-procedural and substantive 294
8. Restrictions and natural justice 294
9. Restrictions and total prohibition 295
10. Reasonable restrictions and due process 295
11. Reasonable restrictions and Directive Principles 296
12. Reasonableness-burden of proof 296
13. Reasonable restrictions-summary of principles 297
14. Article 19 and other constitutional provisions 297
15. Freedom only for citizens 298
16. Positive and negative rights 298
17. Companies-right to claim freedoms under Article 19 298
Article 19(1)(a)
18. Freedom of Speech and Expression 299
19. Freedom of speech-scope of 300
Fair criticism-right to 301
20. Bennett Coleman case 301
21. Free speech and commercial advertisements 301
22. Censorship of Cinema 302
23. American case law-applicability 303
24. Freedom of expression-other aspects 303
25. Freedom of expression and noise pollution 304
26. Right to privacy 305
27. Right to fair criticism 305
28. Right to information 305
29. Right of voters to know the antecedents of candidates 306
30. Compelled speech or “must carry” provisions 307
31. Tax laws and freedom of the press 307
32. Freedom of speech and airwaves 308
33. Reasonable restrictions under clause (2) 310
(a) Sovereignty and integrity of India 310
(b) Security of the State 310
(c) Friendly relations with foreign states 310
(d) Public Order 310
(e) Decency or morality 311
(f) Contempt of Court 312
(g) Defamation 312
(h) Incitement to offence 312
Article 19(1)(b)
34. Freedom of Assembly 313
Article 19(1)( c)
35. Scope of right limited 314
36. Co-operative Society-effect of right to form association 315
37. Right to continue association 317
38. No right to strike 318
39. Prevention of associations/ unions 318
40. Miscellaneous observations 319
Article 19(1)(d)
41. Right to move freely 320
42. Externment orders 320
43. Surveillance cases and right to privacy 321
44. Miscellaneous issues 321 Article 19(1)(e)
45. Reasonable restrictions 321 Article 19(1)(f)-Right to property
46. Clause deleted from 1979 322
47. Right of property not part of basic structure 323
48. Property-meaning of 323
49. Property and taxation 324
50. Rights which are property-examples 324
51. Rights which are not property-examples 325
52. Restrictions must be reasonable 325
Article 19(1)(g)
53. Legislative history 326
54. Occupation - includes education: 327
55. Occupation - meaning of 327
56. Article 19(1)(g) and Article 301-relation between 327
57. Article 19(1)(g) and Directive Principles 328
58. Education-whether business 328
59. Education and Articles 19(1)(g), 29 and 30 328
60. No fundamental right in liquor business 329
61. Money lending, gambling-no fundamental right 330
62. Control Orders and essential commodities 331
63. Restrictions regarding labour laws 332
64. Restrictions-”in the interest of the general public”: 332
65. Reasonable restrictions-flexible and relative 333
66. Restrictions must be supported by law 333
67. Restrictions-extent of reasonableness 334
68. Restrictions and total prohibition 334
69. Imposition of licence fees and taxes-validity 334
70. Right of hawkers 335
71. Uncontrolled delegation of power 335
72. Nationalisation-not violative of Article 19(1)(g) 336
Article 19(1)g and 26 336
73. Education-from charity to commerce 336
74. Other restrictions-valid and invalid 337
Statutory provisions held to be valid: 343
Statutory provisions held to be invalid 345
Art. 20. Protection in respect of conviction of offences 346
1. Ex post facto laws-meaning 346
2. Ex post facto laws-clause (1) 346
3. Ex-post facto laws and the US Constitution 348
4. Ex post facto rule-applicability to procedural laws 349
5. Article 20 and U.N. Charter 350
6. Enhanced punishment prohibited 350
7. Civil liability not affected 351
8. Law in force-meaning 351
9. Double jeopardy 351
10. Other statutory provisions 352
11. Same offence 352
12. Double jeopardy and issue estoppel 353
13. Lack of jurisdiction-effect of 354
14. Proceedings before departmental authorities 354
15. Clause (3)-self-incrimination 355
16. Clause (3)-three requirements 355
17. Compulsion-essential requirements 356
18. Tape recorded statements 357
19. To be a witness-meaning of 358
20. Search and seizure 358
21. Accused of an offence-meaning of 358
22. Anti-terrorism enactments-special provisions 359
23. Illustrative cases 360
24. Article 20(3) and Sec.161 Cr.P.C. 361
25. Protection even before trial 361
26. Self-incrimination-meaning of 361
Art. 21. Protection of life and personal liberty. 362
1. Extensive interpretation 363
2. Life-meaning of 363
3. Right to life-includes livelihood 364
4. Right to life-includes reputation 365
5. Euthanasia-right to die 365
6. Expansion of scope of right to life 365
7. Article 21 and other constitutional provisions 367
8. National Human Rights Com-mission 368
9. Article 21 and international covenants 368
10. Judgments and Tribunal orders-no violation of Articles 14 and 21 368
11. Personal liberty-meaning and scope 368
12. Law-meaning of 370
13. Detention beyond prescribed period 371
14. Directions to undergo medical examination 371
15. Procedure established by law and due process 371
16. Video conference-permissibility 372
17. Right to a speedy trial 372
18. Right to a fair trial 374
19. “Right to speedy trial”: Delay in disposal of appeal 374
No time limit 374
20. Delay in execution of death sentence 375
21. Mandatory death sentence 375
22. Prisoners-other rights 376
23. Co-accused-equal treatment 377
24. Bail rendered ineffective by production warrants-no violation 378
25. Successive bail applications-not permissible 378
26. Right to education 378
27. Right to privacy 378
28. Right to privacy-permissible restrictions 379
29. Right to privacy and search and seizure 379
30. Right to decent burial 380
31. Damages/compensation-right to award 380
32. Article 21 and right to rehabilitation 383
33. Environment-third generation rights 383
34. Hygenic environment 384
35. Right to life and sustainable development 384
36. Environment and public health 385
37. Doctrine of Public Trust 386
38. Right to health 388
39. Right to family pension 389
40. Right to legal aid 389
41. Article 21-applicability during emergency 389
42. Courts-jurisdiction cannot be taken away 391
43. Companies Act, 1956 and Article 21 391
44. Article 21A-Right to education 391
Art. 21A. Right to education 391
1. Education-a fundamental right 392
Art. 22. Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. 392
1. Legislative history 394
2. Nature and scope 394
3. Article 22-inter-relation of seven clauses 395
4. Arrest under court warrant 396
5. Clause (4)-”such detention” 397
6. Clause (7)-scope of 397
7. Clause (7)-effect of a comma 398
8. Constitutional validity-preventive detention laws 398
9. Preventive detention-meaning and scope 399
10. Article 22 and other constitutional provisions 399
11. “Earliest opportunity”/as soon as may be-meaning 400
12. Emergency-effect of 401
13. Advisory Board-importance of 403
14. Advisory Board can regulate its own procedures 403
15. “Grounds”-meaning of 404
16. Grounds-requirements of 404
17. Grounds-permissibility of additional/supplementary grounds 406
18. Subjective satisfaction-meaning of 407
19. Preventive detention-application of mind at two stages 408
20. Preventive detention-general principles 409
21. Preventive detention-“public order” and “law and order” 410
22. Preventive detention and criminal prosecution 412
22a. Bail application-anti terrorist laws 413
23. Bail application-consideration of 413
24. Detention order-revocation of 414
25. Detention-passing fresh order 415
26. Detention order-judicial review before service of 415
27. Detention order-mala fides 416
28. Judicial review-need for circumspection 417
29. Judicial review-res judicata-applicability 418
30. Custodial violence 419
31. Guidelines for Arrest of women 420
32. Detention-language of communication 420
33. Procedural safeguards-strict compliance necessary 421
34. Representation-constitutional and statutory right 422
35. Representation-consideration by authorised officer 424
Representation to President/Governor 424
36. Documents-delay or non-supply-effect of 424
37. Delay-effect on order of detention 426
38. Delay in considering representation 427
39. Delay in passing the order of detention 428
40. Detenu already in jail-effect of 429
41. Detention order-vitiation of 430
42. Detention order not vitiated-illustrative cases 432
43. Detenu-right to representation by counsel 432
44. Detenu-duty to produce witnesses 433
45. Supreme Court-detenu must first approach High Court 433
46. Miscellaneous Issues 434
Right against Exploitation
Art. 23. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour 436
1. Article 23–Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour 437
2. Scope and ambit of expression “begar and similar forms of forced labour” 437
3. Not applicable to civil servants 439
Art. 24. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc 439
1. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. 439
Right to Freedom of Religion
Art. 25. Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion. 440
Right to freedom of religion 441
1. Subject to other provisions 441
2. Public Order 442
3. Freedom of religion 442
4. Religion-meaning of 442
5. Religious practices or personal law-power to restrict or supersede 444
6. Essential part or practices of a religion 444
7. Profess, practise and propagate religion 445
8. Religious beliefs -need to respect 446
9. Article 25(2)(a)-scope 446
10. Scope of Articles 25 and 26 446
11. American & Australian cases 447
12. Ex-communication-permissibility 448
Art. 26. Freedom to manage religious affairs 449
1. Religious denomination-meaning of 449
2. Matters of religion-meaning of 451
3. Education and Articles 19(1) (g) and 26 452
4. Management of its own affairs-right to 452
5. Right to perform poojas 453
6. Clauses (b) and (d)-relation between 453
7. Administration of property 454
8. Clauses (c) and (d) 454
9. Acquisition of property/levy of taxes 455
10. Articles 26(b) and 25(2)(b)-harmonious construction 455
11. Articles 26 and 30 – differences 455
12. Civil suit-maintainability of 456
Art. 27. Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion 456
Art. 28. Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions 457
1. Religious instructions-scope 457 Cultural and Educational Rights
Art. 29. Protection of interests of minorities 458
1. Minorities rights-historical background 458
2. Scheme of the rights 459
3. Rationale for the rights 460
4. Article 29(1), 30 and 19-relation between 460
5. Illegal Migrants Act-effect on demographic pattern 461
6. No discrimination-Scope of Article 29(2) 461
7. Article 29(2)-controlled by Article 15(4) 462
8. Article 15 and Article 29(2)-comparison 462
9. Article 29(1) & 29(2)-comparative scope 463
10. Reservation in unaided professional colleges 463
11. Marginal note-not relevant 463
12. State aided minority institutions-whether reservations permissible 463
13. Article 29(2) and 30(1)-narrow interpretation to be avoided 464
14. Entrance examination-language 466
15. Compulsory study of regional language 466
16. Right to agitate-covered 466
17. American decisions-relevancy of 466
Art. 30. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions 467
1. Rights of religious and linguistic minorities 468
2. Ambit and scope - Article 30 468
3. Education and Articles 19(1)(g), 29 and 30 470
4. Minority status to be determined Statewise 470
5. Article 30(1)-not controlled by Article 29(1) 471
6. Insertion of clause (1A)-reasons 472
7. Clause (2)-no scope for discrimination 473
8. Concept of citizenship in Article 29 & 30 473
9. “Establish”-meaning of 473
10. Administer-meaning of 473
11. Educational institution – right to establish 474
12. “Establish and administer”-to be read conjunctively 474
13. “Educational institutions”-meaning of 475
14. Educational institutions-professional and non professional categories 475
15. Educational institutions autonomy v. merit 475
16. Educational institution - right to affiliation 476
17. “Of their own choice”-meaning of 476
18. Appointment of teachers 477
19. Minority institution-what constitutes 477
20. Minority institutions-status not to be decided under Article 226 479
21. Minority institutions-pre & post Constitution 479
Three Categories-degree of control 480
22. Institutions established by statutes-not covered 482
23. Declaration by Government-not important 482
24. Article 30-conditions for claiming benefit 482
25. Minority institutions-admission of non minority students 483
26. Minority institutions-general laws applicable 485
27. Right to administer-scope of 485
28. Right to administer-subject to regulations 486
29. St. Xaviers’ case 488
30. Unnikrishnan - scheme not valid 489
31. Regulation-limits of 490
32. Educational Institutions – permissible regulations 491
33. Regulations invalid – illustrative case 491
34. “Education Triology - Pai, Islamic and Inamdar”. 492
35. Compulsory study of regional language 492
36. Regulation of fees 492
Art. 31. [Repealed]. 493
1. Legislative History 493
2. Right to property-repealed 495
3. Property-meaning of 496
4. Eminent domain-meaning of 496
5. Clause (4)-exception to clause (2) 497
6. Compensation-judicial uncertainty 497
7. Compensation for acquisition of undertaking 498
8. Authority of law 499
9. Public purpose-meaning of 499
Saving of Certain Laws
Art. 31A. Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc 500
1. Legislative History 501
2. Constitutional validity upheld 503
3. Four categories covered 503
4. Object-agrarian reforms 503
5. Estate-meaning of 504
6. Acquisition-meaning of 506
7. Corporation-includes co-operative society 506
8. Winning minerals-meaning 506
9. Modification-meaning of 506
10. Ceiling limits-second proviso 507
11. Articles 31A and 31B-extra protection 507
12. Takeover of management 508
13. Article 31A and other constitutional provisions 508
14. Immunity not total 509
15. Illustrative cases 509
Art. 31B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations 511
1. Legislative history 511
2. Constitutional validity 512
3. Articles 31A and 31B-relation between 512
4. Object and scope 513
5. Ninth Schedule-clear abuse of power 513
6. Reconsideration of earlier Supreme Court decisions 514
7. No automatic protection for amendments 515
8. Protection for Rules/Notifications 516
9. Article 31B and other constitutional provisions 516
10. Illustrative cases 516
Art. 31C. Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles 517
1. Legislative History 518
2. Kesavananda Bharati’s case-a brief analysis re: Article 31C 518
3. Minerva Mills case-impact of 519
4. Declaration-necessity of 520
5. Nationalisation-protected by Article 31C 520
6. Illustrative cases 521
Art. 31D. [Repealed.] 522
Right to Constitutional Remedies
Art. 32. Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part 523
1. Nature and scope 524
2. Fundamental rights only 525
3. Maintainability of petition-separate issue 526
4. Illustrative cases 526
5. Fundamental rights-suspension of 528
6. Fundamental rights-threat of violation sufficient 529
7. Judicial Review-part of basic structure 529
8. Judicial review-scope of 529
9. Supreme Court and High Court judgements-interference under Article 32 530
10. Power is preventive and remedial 531
11. Possibility of abuse not to invalidate statute 531
12. Power and duty to grant relief 531
13. Special leave petition-con-version to Article 32 petition 533
14. Equity-no relief even against wrong orders 533
15. Articles 32 and 226-difference between 533
16. Article 32 and other constitutional provisions 534
17. Article 32 and international conventions 535
18. “Appropriate proceedings”—meaning of 535
19. “In the nature of”—meaning of 535
20. Supreme Court-amplitude of power 536
21. Power to award compensation 536
22. Practice and procedure 537
23. Interim relief 539
24. Locus standi 539
25. Laches or delay 542
26. Burden of proof 543
27. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and abuse of process 543
28. Article 32—petition converted to a curative petition 544
29. Article 32—self imposed limitations 545
30. Res judicata-applicability 550
31. Article 32 and administrative directions 552
32. Environment and pollution control 553
33. Human rights 555
34. Other areas 556
35. Inter-linking of rivers 557
36. Public trust doctrine 557
37. Miscellaneous issues 558
38. Particular writs 558
Art. 32A. [Repealed.]. 559
1. Legislative history 559
Art. 33. Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc 560
1. Legislative history 560
2. Fundamental Rights-Modification for armed forces 561
3. Army Act and Power of Parliament 561
4. Army Act and fundamental rights 561
5. Civilians employed by armed forces 562
6. Police forces-applicability 562
Art.34. Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area 563
Art.35. Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part 564
1. “Laws in force in the territory of India” 564
2. Impact of Articles 21, 22 and 32 565
Art. 35A. Saving of laws with respect to permanent residents and their rights 565
PART IV
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Art. 36. Definition. 567
1. State-meaning of 567
Art.37. Application of the principles contained in this Part 567
1. Directive Principles of State Policy – Nature and Objective 567
2. Relationship between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights 568
3. “Violation of Directive Principles – validity of statute” 569
4. Directive Principles – not heads of legislation 569
5. Harmonious construction of Part III and Part IV 569
6. Interpretation – furtherance of Directive Principles 571
7. Violation of Directive Principles – validity of statute 572
Directive principles and reasonableness of restriction 573
8. Public Servants 574
9. Judicial Review 574
10. Instances of reliance on Directive Principles for enforcement of rights/governmental obligations 574
Art. 38. State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people 575
1. Article 38 – used to interpret other provisions 575
2. Reservation 576
3. Instances of State enactments in pursuance of Articles 38 576
4. Socio Economic Justice 577
Art. 39. Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State 577
1. Legislative History 578
2. Material resources of the community – meaning of – clause (b) 578
3. Reconsideration of decision 579
4. Judicial review of declaration 579
5. Distribution 579
6. Equal Pay for Equal Work Equivalent a Fundamental Right 581
7. Equal Pay for Equal Work-application in illustrative cases 582
8. Women & Children 583
9. Enactments held to be in implemention of Article 39(b) & (c) 584
Art. 39A. Equal justice and free legal aid 584
1. Legal aid – necessity of 585
2. Court fees – levy of 586
3. Public interest litigation 586
Art. 40. Organisation of village panchayats 586
1. Village-meaning of 586
2. Panchayats –constitution of 586
3. Part-IX of the Constitution 587
Art. 41. Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases 587
1. Right to livelihood and Article 21 587
2. Workmen and Labour 587
3. Supreme Court – change in approach 588
4. Education 588
5. Health facilities – provision of 589
Art. 42. Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief 589
1. Jail conditions 589
2. Maternity benefits 590
Art.43. Living, wage, etc. for workers 590
1. Minimum Wage 590
2. Discrimination – not permissible 591
3. Fair wage 591
4. Workers’ co-operatives 591
5. Living wages 591
6. Decent standard of life 592
7. Bonded Labour 592
8. Right to health and safety 592
9. Sexual harassment – prevention of 592
10. Other enactments 593
Art. 43A. Participation of workers in management of industries 593
1. Legislative History 593
Art. 44. Uniform civil code for the citizens 594
Art. 45. Provision for free and compulsory education for children 595
Art. 46. Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections 595
1. Weaker sections – meaning of 597
Art. 47. Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the stan-dard of living and to improve public health 597
1. Prohibition and trade in liquor 597
Art. 48. Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry 598
1. Prevention of cow slaughter 598
Art. 48A.Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life 600
1. Environment duty to protect 600
Art. 49. Protection of monuments and places and object of national importance. 602
Art. 50. Separation of judiciary from executive. 602
1. Conscience of Constitution 602
2. Basic Structure of the Constitution 603
3. Separation of Powers 604
4. Appointment of members to Tribunals 604
5. Validation Acts 605
6. National Company Law Tribunal – constitutional validity 605
7. Subordinate judiciary – control by High Court 606
8. Debt Recovery Tribunal – validity 607
9. “The State” – meaning 607
10. Judicial Review – Scope 607
11. Tribunals - a double edged alternative 607
Art. 51. Promotion of international peace and security 608
1. Municipal law and International Law 608
2. Acquisition, Cession, and the governing law 609
3. Principles of Private International Law 609
4. Treaties 609
5. Covenant with rulers of the erstwhile princely states – enforceability 610
6. Section 86, Civil Procedure Code, 1908 and the Doctrine of Sovereign Immunity 611
7. Declarations and Covenants–enforceability 611
8. Resolutions different from covenants 611
9. International instruments 612
PART IVA
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Art. 51A. Fundamental Duties 613
1. Directive principles and fundamental duties 614
2. Collective duty of the State 615
3. Fundamental duties - impact on legislation/executive action 616
4. Environment – meaning 616
5. National Anthem and National Flag 617
6. Other cases 617
PART V
THE UNION
CHAPTER 1—THE EXECUTIVE
The President and Vice-President
Art. 52. The President of India 619
Art. 53. Executive power of the Union. 619
1. Separation of Powers 620
2. Powers of President/Governor 620
3. Executive Power – Scope of 620
4. Relation between two branches 621
5. Executive Powers and delegated legislation 621
6. Executive Powers – Limitation on 622
7. Personal satisfactions 623
8. Executive Functions 623
9. Appointment / Dismissal of Govt. Servant 623
10. State agencies – Function and character 623
11. Executive and Judicial functions 623
12. Executive Powers and Cabinet 624
13. Executive Power – Legislative Sanction 624
14. Rules/Regulations and Administrative Instructions 624
15. Rules/Regulations and estoppel 624
Art. 54. Election of President 625
1. Legislative History 625
2. Electoral College – Meaning of 626
3. Legislative Assemblies – exclusion of Union Territories 626
Art. 55. Manner of election of President. 627
1. Legislative history 628
2. Not related to vacancy in Electoral College 628
3. “As far as practicable”- meaning of 628
4. Uniformity among States 628
Art. 56. Term of office of President 629
1. Term of a President 629
2. Successor to enter upon his office 629
Art. 57. Eligibility for re-election 630
Art. 58. Qualifications for election as President 630
1. Legislative History 631
2. Not concerned with nomination 631
3. Qualifications under Article 58 not enough 631
4. Section 5B and 5C – valid 631
5. Section 5(2) valid 631
6. Locus standi to challenge election 632
7. Office of profit-scope under Article 58 and Article 102 632
8. Article 84(a) or (b) – not applicable 632
9. Election Commission cannot prescribe oath 633
10. Clause (c) – Article 84 and 102 relevant 633
Art. 59. Conditions of President’s office. 633
Art. 60. Oath or affirmation by the President 634
1. Amendment to Article 84 not applicable 634
Art. 61. Procedure for impeachment of the President 635
Art. 62. Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of Presi-dent and the term of office of person elected to fill casual va-cancy 635
1. Election to be completed before the expiration of term of a President 636
2. Impotentia excusat legem – applicability 636
3. “Otherwise” – meaning of 637
4. Articles 56(1)(c) & 65(1) complementary to Article 62 637
5. Article 71 relevant 637
Art. 63. The Vice-President of India 637
Art. 64. The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States 638
Art. 65. The Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his functions during casual vacancies in the office, or during the absence, of President 638
Art. 66. Election of Vice-President 639
Art. 67. Term of office of Vice-President 640
Art. 68. Time of holding election to fill vacancy in the office of Vice-President and the term of office of person elected to fill casual vacancy 640
Art. 69. Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President 641
Art. 70. Discharge of President’s functions in other contingencies 641
1. Discharge of President’s functions 641
Art. 71. Matters relating to, or connected with, the election of a Presi-dent or Vice-President 641
1. Jurisdiction with Supreme Court 642
2. Article 71(1) different from Article 329(1) 642
3. Election – meaning of 643
4. Parliament’s power 643
5. Presidential and Vice Presidential Elections Act, 1952 – validity 643
6. Section 18 – valid 644
7. Article 71(3) – Supreme Court’s jurisdiction not taken away 644
Art. 72. Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases 644
1. Reprieve, respite, remission – meaning 645
2. Section 433A of Criminal Procedure Code and Article 72 646
3. Specific guidelines not necessary 646
4. Power to award lesser sentence 647
5. Delay in execution of death sentence 647
6. Power – as per executive advice 648
7. Power to take a different view 648
8. Pardon does not amend or modify judgment 648
9. Power to stay death sentence 649
10. No right to oral hearing 649
11. Second petition for clemency – permissibility 649
12. Power of pardon – judicial review 650
13. Pardon- judicial review – principles restated 650
Art. 73. Extent of executive power of the Union 651
1. Nature and scope 652
2. Article 73 – impact of legislative powers 652
3. Proviso—effect of 653
4. Clause (b) – rights under any treaty or agreement 653
5. Clause 2 – pre-Constitution laws 654
6. Executive power – limitations 654
7. Letter of a Joint Secretary – not a directive 654
8. Executive power of the Union – nature and extent of 654
9. Legislation – absence of 655
10. Article 73 and other provisions of the Constitution 655
11. Executive order – power to change 656
Council of Ministers
Art. 74. Council of Ministers to aid and advise President 656
1. Legislative History 657
2. Parliamentary government and Samsher Singh’s case 658
3. “…shall…” meaning of 660
4. President–when need not act on the advice of Council of Minis-ters 661
5. Rationale for immunity 663
6. Documents regarding advice – production of 663
7. Section 123 of the Evidence Act 664
Art. 75. Other provisions as to Ministers 665
1. Clause (1) Contingent appointment not valid 666
2. Clause (2) – Council of Ministers 666
3. Clause (3) – Collective Responsibility 668
4. Prime Minister & collective responsibility 670
5. Ministers must accept responsibility 670
6. Cabinet System of governance 671
7. Judicial review of administrative action 671
8. Dissolution of the House 671
9. Clause (4) – Oath – scope of 672
10. Deputy Prime Minister – oath for 672
11. Non-member as Minister – validity of 672
12. Non Member as Prime Minister 673
13. Articles 74 & 75 – comparison with cognate provisions 674
The Attorney-General for India
Art. 76. Attorney-General for India. 674
1. Legislative History 675
2. “Need for procedure” 675
3. Attorney General and Contempt of Court 675
Conduct of Government Business
Art. 77. Conduct of business of the Government of India 676
1. Legislative History 676
2. Rules 677
3. Articles 77 – operation and scope 677
4. Name of President – not mandatory 679
5. Immunity under Article 361 – impact of 679
6. Article 77 not applicable to pre-constitutional covenants 679
7. Order under Article 359(1) included 680
8. No delegation of power 680
9. Rules of Business 680
11. Rules of business – directory 681
10. Article 77 and 166 681
11. Power to issue directions 682
12. Exercise of discretionary quota by Ministers (petrol pumps case) 682
Art. 78. Duties of Prime Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the President, etc. 686
CHAPTER II—PARLIAMENT
General
Art. 79. Constitution of Parliament 687
Art. 80. Composition of the Council of States 687
1. Role of Rajya Sabha –comparative study 688
2. “Each State” – significance 689
3. Representative character and basic structure 689
4. Members and Representatives 690
5. Article 80 – interpretation based on Representation of People Act, 1951 690
6. Secret ballot 690
Art. 81. Composition of the House of the People 691
1. Legislative History 692
2. Scope of the Article 693
Art. 82. Readjustment after each census 693
1. Legislative History 694
2. Delimitation Law 695
Art. 83. Duration of Houses of Parliament. 695
Art. 84. Qualification for membership of Parliament 696
1. Educational requirements 696
2. Resident – not a requirement of federalism 697
Art. 85. Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution 697
1. Scope 697
2. Tenure of Prime Minister and other Ministers 698
3. Privileges of Members of Parliament 698
4. Detention of certain MPs – validity of Parliamentary proceed-ings 698
5. Interference by Courts – scope of 698
Art. 86. Right of President to address and send messages to Houses 699
Art. 87. Special address by the President 699
Art. 88. Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as respects Houses 699
Officers of Parliament
Art. 89. The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of States 700
Art. 90. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the office of Deputy Chairman 700
Art. 91. Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman. 700
Art. 92. The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration 701
Art. 93. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the People 701
Art. 94. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker 701
Art. 95. Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker. 702
Art. 96. The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration 702
Art. 97. Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and Deputy Chair-man and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker 703
Art. 98. Secretariat of Parliament 703
Conduct of Business
Art. 99. Oath or affirmation by members. 703
1. Oath is mandatory 703
2. Oath and voting 704
Art. 100. Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum 704
1. Non-member Ministers-no right to vote 705
Disqualifications of Members
Art. 101. Vacation of seats 705
1. Right to resign 706
Art. 102. Disqualifications for membership 707
1. Legislative history 708
2. Disqualification – grounds not to be increased by courts 709
3. Clause (1)(a) – rationale for the provision 709
4. Disqualification and natural justice 709
5. “…government…” – meaning of 709
6. Profit – meaning of 710
7. Office of profit – what constitutes 710
8. Article 102 – effect of profit 710
9. Local Authority – meaning of 711
10. Post or service under the Government 713
11. Government company 713
12. Membership of Parliament 714
13. Illustrative cases 714
14. Office of profit – when vacated 715
15. Clause 1(d) Foreign citizenship 715
16. Commonwealth countries – not a foreign state 715
17. Clause (1)(e) – disqualification under any law 716
18. Disqualifications under the Article – effect of 717
Art. 103. Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members 717
1. Legislative history 717
2. Scope 719
3. Nature of President’s power 720
4. Judicial review of decision 720
5. Complaint received from individuals 720
6. Election Commission’s role 721
Art. 104. Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirma-tion under article 99 or when not qualified or when disquali-fied 722
Powers, Privileges and Immunities of Parliament and its Members
Art. 105. Powers, Privileges etc., of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof 722
1. Legislative History 723
2. Parliamentary privilege – meaning 724
3. Article 105(3) – scope 725
4. Nature of the freedom of speech 726
5. Free speech – immunity only for members 726
6. Rationale for immunity 726
7. Scope of powers, privileges etc. 727
8. Preventive detention – validity 727
9. Election disputes – clause (3) inapplicable 728
10. Anti-defection law – not violative of right of members 728
11. Narasimha Rao’s case 729
12. Minority view 730
13. Majority view incorrect 731
14. Sanction for prosecution 732
15. Member of Parliament – public servant 732
Art. 106. Salaries and allowances of members 732
Legislative Procedure
Art. 107. Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills 733
1. Corresponding Provisions 733
2. Comments 734
3. Natural justice – principles not applicable 734
4. Introduction of a Bill – Clause (1) 734
5. Approval of both Houses – Clause (2) 734
6. Amendment – meaning of 735
7. Prorogation, dissolution and lapse of Bills – Clauses (3) - (5) 735
8. Prorogation and adjournment 736
9. Quorum – Article 100 737
Art. 108. Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases 737
1. Corresponding provisions 738
2. Amend – meaning of 738
3. Special provisions for joint sitting 739
Art. 109. Special procedure in respect of Money Bills 739
1. Corresponding provisions 740
2. Money Bills – special features 740
3. “Introduced” and “moved” 741
Art. 110. Definition of “Money Bills” 741
1. Corresponding provisions 742
2. Money Bill – definition 742
3. Municipal taxation outside scope of money bill 743
4. Amendment – meaning of 743
Art. 111. Assent to Bills 743
1. Powers and duties of the President 743
Procedure in Financial Matters
Art. 112. Annual financial statement 744
1. Corresponding provisions 745
2. Union Budget 745
3. Other expenditure 746
Art. 113. Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates 746
1. Corresponding provisions 747
2. Discussion permitted 747
Art. 114. Appropriation Bills 747
1. Corresponding provisions 748
2. Appropriation – importance of 748
Art. 115. Supplementary, additional, or excess grants 748
1. Corresponding provisions 749
2. Comments 749
3. Contingency Fund 749
Art. 116. Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants 749
1. Corresponding provisions 750
2. Comments 750
Art. 117. Special provisions as to financial Bills 750
1. Corresponding provisions 751
2. Financial Bills – different from Money Bills 751
Procedure generally
Art. 118. Rules of procedure 751
1. Corresponding provisions 752
2. Comments 752
3. Rules subject to fundamental rights 753
4. Effect of Article 124(5) 753
Art. 119. Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business 753
1. Article 119 - Rules subject to Act / Ordinance 753
Art. 120. Language to be used in Parliament 754
1. Corresponding provisions 754
Art. 121. Restriction on discussion in Parliament 754
1. Corresponding provisions 754
2. Comments 754
Art. 122. Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament 755
1. Corresponding provisions 755
2. Irregularity of procedure 755
CHAPTER III—LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
Art. 123. Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament 756
1. Ordinances – historical background 757
2. Ordinance making power – scope 757
3. Ordinance – a legislative and not executive power 758
4. Ordinance – same effect as an Act 758
5. Ordinance – includes power to alter/amend tax laws 758
6. Ordinances and fundamental rights 759
7. Burden of proof 759
8. Ordinance – and non-application of mind 759
9. Ordinance not replaced by an Act – effect 759
CHAPTER IV—THE UNION JUDICIARY
Art. 124. Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court. 761
1. Legislative history 763
2. General 763
3. Strength of Supreme Court of India 763
4. Judicial appointments and transfers – a sordid saga 764
5. S.P. Gupta’s case – a grievous blow 765
6. S.P. Gupta’s case – reference to 9 Judge Bench 766
7. Appointment of judges in Supreme Court – effect of Articles 74, 124 and 217 767
8. Consultation with Chief Justice of India – scope and require-ments 767
9. No consultation under Government of India Act, 1919/1935 769
10. Age of Judges 769
11. Independence of Judiciary – part of basic structure 770
12. Opinion of the Chief Justice of India 770
13. Opinion of the Chief Justice – consultation with collegium 770
14. Inter se seniority 770
15. Legitimate Expectation 771
16. Opinion of Chief Justice of India – primacy of 771
17. Non-appointment of recommended person 771
18. Initiation of appointment process 772
19. Time Bound Programme 772
20. Chief Justice of India – appointment of seniormost persons 773
21. Collegium for Judges ‘appointment 774
22. National Judicial Commission 774
23. Qualification of a judge 774
24. Removal of a judge- investigation and inquiry 775
25. Impeachment proceedings 776
26. Conduct of a judge/misbehavior 776
27. Judicial review 777
Art. 125. Salaries, etc. of Judges 778
1. Salary of a Judge 778
Art. 126. Appointment of acting Chief Justice 779
Art. 127. Appointment of ad hoc Judges 779
Art. 128. Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court 779
Art. 129. Supreme Court to be a court of record 780
1. Court of record – meaning 780
2. Contempt and other constitutional provisions 781
3. Nature of contempt jurisdiction 781
4. Contempt – the “Animal Farm” syndrome 782
5. Truth - defence in contempt proceedings 784
6. Contempt–action against advocates 785
7. Inherent nature of jurisdiction 785
8. Contempt – meaning of 786
9. Contempt of High Courts and subordinate courts 787
10. Power and procedure to punish for contempt 788
11. Procedural requirements important 788
12. Contempt jurisdiction – importance of consent of Attorney General 789
13. Contempt petition – withdrawal of 789
14. Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 – punishments applicable only to High Courts 789
15. Contempt – Cr. P.C not apply 790
16. Powers to punish – to be used sparingly 790
17. Contempt and fair criticism 791
18. Contempt – compliance with judicial orders 792
19. Apology for contempt 793
Art. 130. Seat of Supreme Court 794
Art. 131. Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 794
1. Legislative History 794
2. Union and Inter State disputes 795
3. “Locus standi – only states can invoke” 795
4. Parties to the dispute 796
5. Rights of State Government 796
6. Special nature of dispute 797
7. Injunction – applicable principles 797
8. Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 797
9. Orders to be implemented 798
10. Review – not maintainable against order passed under Article 131 798
Art. 131A. [Repealed] 798
1. Legislative History 799
2. Statement of Objects and Reasons 800
3. Comment 800
Art. 132. Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases 800
1. Legislative History 801
2. Appellate Jurisdiction—constitutional matters 801
3. Who can file an appeal before Supreme Court 802
4. Grounds confined to certificate 802
5. Interlocutory orders-appeal will not lie 802
6. Final Order-what is ? 803
7. Appeal from Jugement, or order of a single Judge of High Court 803
8. “Civil proceedings—tax recovery proceedings 803
9. Substantial question of law—what is? 804
10. Article132(3) – Scope of appeal 804
11. Re-examination of evidence 805
12. Discretion 805
13. No reasons given while granting certificate-appeal not main-tainable 805
14. New plea cannot be raised for the first time before the Supreme Court 805
15. Comparison of Jurisdiction to issue certificate under Article 132 and Article 133 806
16. Procedure and Practice before the Supreme Court—Filing fee 807
17. Abatement 807
18. Revoking leave granted under Article 136 807
Art. 133. Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to civil matters 807
1. Legislative History 808
2. Effect of amendment 809
3. Amendment and pending proceedings 809
4. Amendment to C.P.C. 810
5. Supreme Court Rules 810
6. Former clauses (a) and (b) – right of appeal 810
7. Pre-conditions to file an appeal to Supreme Court 811
8. Certificate – requirements of 811
9. Defective certificate – effect of 812
10. Certificate –Supreme Court can consider other questions 813
11. Revocation of Certificate under Article 133 813
12. Judgement, Decree or final order meaning 813
13. Judgement 813
14. “Decree” 814
15. “Final order” 814
16. Doctrine of merger 815
17. Civil proceeding-meaning of 815
18. Proceedings under Article 226 –civil proceedings 815
19. Income-tax references - Article 133 not applicable 816
20. Substantial question of law – meaning of 816
21. Pre-constitutional matters 816
22. Article 133 – Supreme Court not fettered by statutory prohibi-tions 817
23. Compliance with High Court’s order – right of appeal not barred 817
24. Article 133 and Article 132 – relation between 817
25. Concurrent findings of fact -no interference 818
26. Questions of fact – interference by Supreme Court 819
27. Orders under Article 226/227 – interference by Supreme Court 819
28. Fresh plea before the Supreme Court 819
29. Third parties – impleading of 820
30. Nature and extent of Appellate Court’s jurisdiction 820
Art. 134. Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters 821
1. Supreme Court Rules 822
2. Criminal cases – right of appeal 822
3. Enlargement of jurisdiction-statutory provisions 823
4. Enlargement of jurisdiction-specific cases 823
5. Appeal under Cr.P.C. 824
6. Criminal proceedings – meaning 824
7. Substantial question of law 824
8. Acquittal – meaning 825
9. Appeal against acquittal 825
10. Appeal against conviction 826
11. Exercise of discretion by the lower Court – interference by Su-preme Court 827
12. Meaning of “Case” 827
13. Scope of Supreme Court’s jurisdiction 828
14. Judgement, final order or sentence 828
15. Discretion to grant certificate 829
16. Legal principles settled – no certificate 830
17. Delay – not a ground for granting certificate 830
18. Laches 831
19. Article 133(1) and 134(1) – narrower than Article 136 831
20. Interference on questions of fact 832
21. Concurrent finding of facts 833
22. Appreciation of Evidence 834
23. Interference when permissible 834
24. New Plea cannot be raised for the first time before the Supreme Court 835
25. Who can apply for certificate 836
26. Defective Certificate 836
27. Powers of the Supreme Court 836
Art. 134A. Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court 836
Art. 135. Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court 837
1. General 837
2. Legislative history 837
3. Scope and Objects 838
4. Jurisdiction of Supreme Court 838
5. Limitation on jurisdiction 838
6. Relationship with Article 374(2) of the Constitution 839
7. Point of commencement of jurisdiction 839
8. Wide Interpretation 840
Art. 136. Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court. 840
1. Supreme Court Rules 842
2. Special Leave Petitions – Scope 842
3. Supreme Court and Privy Council-scope of powers 843
4. Assumption of jurisdiction in exceptional cases 844
5. Power can be exercised suo motu 845
6. Principles laid down by Privy Council applicable 845
7. Nature of jurisdiction 845
8. Kunhayammed’s case—principles summarised 847
9. Doctrine of merger and review 849
10. Dismissal of SLP and res judicata 851
11. Power is residuary in nature 851
12. Appeals not filed in earlier cases – effect of 851
13. Powers – during admission and final disposal 852
14. Refusal of relief on equitable grounds 852
15. No specific limitations on Supreme Court’s powers 853
16. Judgement, decree, determination, sentence or order –mean-ing of 854
17. Repeal provision – no abatement of – proceedings 856
18. Alternate Remedy – exceptions 856
19. “In any cause or matter” – mean-ing 857
20. “Any Court or Tribunal” – mean-ing 857
21. Tribunal decisions – pre-requi-sites for interference 858
22. “In the Territory of India” 859
23. Effect of
Art. 32 859
24. Special leave petition – conversion to Article 32 petition 859
25. Special Leave Petitions by Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) 859
26. Supreme Court—self-imposed limitations 860
27. Code of Civil Procedure – applicability 861
28. Alternative remedy – principles applicable 861
29. Directions – power to issue 862
30. Directions for hearing batch cases 864
31. Directions cannot be contrary to law 864
32. Undertaking – effect of 865
33. Procedural directions 865
34. Adoption of Procedure 866
35. Service matters/labour matters 866
36. Taxation matters where special leave petition was granted 868
37. Tax matters where leave was not granted 868
38. Arbitration Proceedings 870
39. “Appeal against conviction” after the second paragraph 871
40. Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 871
41. Criminal appeals – scope 871
42. Enhancing life sentence to death 874
43. Criminal appeals – compounding 874
44. Appeal against acquittal 875
45. Appeal against conviction 878
46. Appeal of co-accused – impact of 879
47. Interference in Bail matters 880
48. Interference during trial – not permissible 882
49. Matrimonial matters 882
50. Illustrative instances in general: 882
51. Interlocutory Order – interference 887
52. Interim order – granting of – principles 890
53. Pre-Constitutional matters 891
54. Territorial limitation 891
55. New plea cannot be raised for the first time 891
56. New plea: when entertained 894
57. Remand for consideration of new plea 895
58. Remand to High Court – illustrative case: 896
59. Alternative remedy 897
60. Reappreciation of evidence 898
61. Criminal Procedure Code – applicability of provisions 901
62. Right of respondent 901
63. Subsequent events importance of 902
64. Intervention – permissibility 902
65. Additional evidence – permissibility 903
66. Supression of facts 904
67. Summary dismissal by High Court – improper 904
68. Dismissal of SLP-effect 905
69. Abuse of process of Court – meaning of 905
70. Relief on Equity and social justice 907
71. Revocation/Recalling/reopening of the order 908
72. Enlarging the scope of the appeal – permissibility 909
73. Infructuous issues – regard to subsequent events 909
74. Violation of natural justice – effect 910
75. Contempt of Court – appeal against 910
76. Removal of disparaging remarks 911
77. Adverse remarks against subo-rdinate judges 911
78. Locus standi 911
79. Revocation of Special leave 913
80. Withdrawal of a Special Leave Petition 913
81. Views from different High Courts 913
82. Substitution of Legal Representatives – requirements of 914
83. Service of Notice 914
84. Doctrine of restitution 914
85. Doctrine of election 914
86. Meaning of ‘status quo’ as in the High Court 914
87. Exercise of jurisdiction – applicable principles 915
Art. 137. Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court 918
1. Supreme Court Rules 919
2. Supreme Court Rules – amendments valid 920
3. Review – inherent power of the Supreme Court 920
4. Review – power to be used sparingly 920
5. Review – relevant tests 921
6. Review – reconsideration in another case – effect 923
7. Review – effect of earlier decisions 923
8. Review in criminal proceedings 923
9. Review – different from appeal 924
10. Review – clarification or modification – permissibility 924
11. Review – abuse of process of the court 925
12. Review – locus standi 925
13. Manifest error of law – review Petition maintainable 926
14. Review and the Antulay Case 926
15. Curative petition – a post review opportunity 927
16. Review permissible—illustrative cases 929
17. Review not permissible – illustrative cases 932
Art. 138. Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 933
1. General 933
2. Powers of Supreme Court 933
Art. 139. Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs 934
Art. 139A. Transfer of certain cases 934
1. Nature and scope 935
2. Conditions to invoke this Article 935
3. Public Interest Litigation 936
4. Transfer of proceedings 936
5. Transfer of “representative cases” 938
6. Transfer – effect of 938
7. Civil and Criminal Procedure Code 939
8. Transfer of criminal cases by the Supreme Court 939
9. Retransfer of proceedings 939
Art. 140. Ancillary powers of Supreme Court 940
Art. 141. Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts 940
1. General 940
2. Powers of the Supreme Court 941
3. Supreme Court – duty of 941
4. Certainty of the law – necessity 943
5. Strength of the Bench and binding force of their judgments 943
6. Subsequent Supreme Court decisions – binding nature of 946
7. Conflict – latter decision prevails 946
8. Doctrine of stare decisis 947
9. Reconsideration of earlier decisions 949
10. Knowledge of judge – relevance 952
11. Review of error in judgment 952
12. All courts – not applicable to the Supreme Court 952
13. Supreme Court decisions – binding nature of 952
14. Supreme Court decisions and fundamental rights – Antulay’s case 954
15. Isolated references not proper 957
16. Observation of minority – need not be followed 958
17. Supreme Court decisions – not statutory enactments 958
18. High Courts/Tribunals – duty to follow decisions 958
19. High Courts – duty to give reasons 960
20. Per incuriam 961
21. Rule of sub-silentio 962
22. Obiter dictum 962
23. Res judicata 963
24. Ratio Decidendi 965
25. Decision on concession not ratio decidendi 968
26. Precedents 968
27. Precedence – settled law not to be disturbed 971
28. Ratio Decidendi v. Obiter dicta 972
29. When a judgement is not a precedent 972
30. Directions under Article 142 – not binding precedent 973
31. Dismissal of special leave petitions – effect of 973
32. Prospective declaration of law 974
33. Prospective overruling 974
34. Retrospective legislation to nullify Court’s judgement 975
35. Binding force of Supreme Court decisions 976
36. Awarding of costs 976
37. Power of Legislature to alter laws 977
38. Review of Supreme Court’s decisions 977
Art. 142. Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc. 978
1. Legislative history 979
2. Article 142 is subject to ordinary laws 979
3. Nature and scope 980
4. “Complete Justice” - meaning and extent 981
5. Considerations of equity 982
6. “Cause or matter”–scope 983
7. Public interest litigation-Article 142 v. Article 145(5) 983
8. Article 142 and Article 139A-relative scope 983
9. Plugging legislative lapses 984
10. Directions under Article 142 984
11. Directions under Article 142 – not binding precedent 985
12. Articles 226 and 142 - not on par 986
13. In relation to High Courts 986
14. Interference in Criminal matters 986
15. Transfer of criminal cases by the Supreme Court 988
16. Prospective overruling 988
17. Limitations of exercise of power under Article 142 989
18. Directions not to be treated as precedent 989
19. Article 142 in action 990
20. Illustrative cases invoking
Art. 142 993
21. Illustrations when
Art. 142 not invoked 994
Art. 143. Power of President to consult Supreme Court 995
1. Supreme Court Rules 995
2. Pre-constitutional stage 996
3. Nature of jurisdiction 996
4. Article 32 and Article 143(1) – cover different fields 997
5. Question regarding validity of a Bill/Act 997
6. Questions likely to arise – reference maintainable 997
7. Article 143(1) – not an appellate jurisdiction 997
8. Instances of reference under this Article 998
9. Limits of President’s powers 998
10. Quorum 999
11. Provisions in the other Constitutions 999
12. Discretion to exercise jurisdiction 999
Art. 144. Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court 999
1. “High Courts” also included 1002
Art. 144A. [Repealed] 1002
1. Legislative history 1002
Art. 145. Rules of Courts, etc. 1003
1. Supreme Court Rules 1005
2. Inherent jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to regulate the proceedings of the Court 1005
3. Interpretation of Constitution-Clause (3) 1006
4. Supreme Court’s rule making power 1006
5. Article 142 cannot override Article 145(5) 1007
6. Statutory appeals to the Supreme Court 1007
Art. 146. Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court 1007
1. Pay scales not fixed 1008
Art. 147. Interpretation 1010
CHAPTER V—COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL OF INDIA
Art. 148. Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 1011
1. Legislative Background 1012
2. Nature of office of the Comptroller & Auditor General 1012
3. Scope of rule-making power 1013
4. Retrospective effect for Rules under
Art. 148(5) - not permissi-ble 1013
5. Appointment of Pay Commission 1013
6.
Art. 148(5) and Art .309 – comparison 1014
Art. 149. Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor-General 1014
Art. 150. Form of accounts of the Union and of the States 1014
Art. 151. Audit reports 1015
PART VI
THE STATES
CHAPTER 1—GENERAL
Art. 152. Definition 1017
CHAPTER II—THE EXECUTIVE
The Governor
Art. 153. Governors of States 1018
Art. 154. Executive power of State 1018
1. Meaning and nature of executive power 1019
2. Executive power of the Governor 1019
3. Executive, legislature and judiciary-relative scope 1020
4. “In accordance with this Constitution” 1020
5. Executive power-exercise of 1021
6. “Governor and Dissolution” 1021
7. Delegation to subordinate authorities 1022
8. Judicial Review of executive decisions 1022
Art. 155. Appointment of Governor. 1022
Art. 156. Term of office of Governor 1022
1. Chief Justice-role of 1023
2. Continuation in office……………….. 1023
Art. 157. Qualifications for appointment as Governor 1023
Art. 158. Conditions of Governor’s office 1023
1. Governor–recommended criteria……… 1024
Art. 159. Oath or affirmation by the Governor 1024
Art. 160. Discharge of the functions of the Governor in certain contin-gencies 1025
Art. 161. Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases 1025
1. Governor’s power of pardon 1025
2. Law of pardon-historical back-ground 1025
3. Legislations dealing with pardon 1026
4. Articles 142(1) and 161-compa-ritive view 1027
5. Pre-constitution prerogatives 1027
6. Pardon-judicial review 1027
7. Principles restated 1028
8. Exercise of power under Article 161 1028
9. Mercy petition-delay in disposal off 1028
10. Council of Ministers-advice of 1029
11. Powers of President/Governor 1029
12. Remission and remit-meaning 1029
13. Remission to prisoners convicted by other States-not permissi-ble 1030
Art. 162. Extent of executive power of State 1030
1. Executive power-limits of 1031
2. Executive power to make rules retrospectively 1032
3. Promotion-only as per rules 1032
4. Executive power-service matters 1033
5. Executive orders - finality of 1033
6. Executive power-admission to professional colleges 1034
7. Executive power and other constitutional provisions 1034
8. Executive Power–judicial review 1035
9. Successive governments bound by earlier decisions 1035
10. Code of conduct for Ministers-no statutory force 1036
11. Administrative instructions-effect of 1036
12. Integration of services 1036
13. Illustrative cases 1037
14. Extra territorial jurisdiction 1038
Council of Ministers
Art. 163. Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor 1038
1. Analogous provision 1038
2. Council of Ministers–advise of 1039
3. Ministers must accept responsibility 1041
4. Clause (2)–“in his discretion” 1041
5. Governor–powers under Sixth Schedule 1041
6. Governor–power to exercise his discretion 1042
7. Sanction to prosecute 1043
8. Article 163(3) 1044
Art. 164. Other provisions as to Ministers 1045
1. Corresponding provisions 1047
2. Governor–duty to follow constitution 1047
3. Ministers having criminal background 1047
4. Scope of Article 1047
5. Collective responsibility—meaning and scope 1048
6. Article 164–Clauses (1), (2) and (4) to be read together 1049
7. Governor not to appoint disqualified person 1049
8. Chief Minister–duty to observe obligations 1049
9. Minister-includes Chief Minister 1050
10. Oath–nature and scope 1050
11. Chief Minister or Minister as non-member 1050
12. Reappointment of unelected person–impermissible 1051
13. Non-member Minister–no right to vote 1051
14. Six consecutive months–signi-ficant 1052
15. Clause(4) : Repeated appointments–unconstitutional 1052
16. Directions to the Jharkhand assembly 1052
17. Conflict between legislature and Supreme Court 1053
The Advocate-General for the State
Art. 165. Advocate-General for the State 1053
1. Advocate-General-nature of duties 1054
Conduct of Government Business
Art. 166. Conduct of business of the Government of a State 1055
1. Legislative History 1056
2. Article 166–provisions directory and not mandatory 1056
3. Burden of proof 1057
4. Executive action–meaning of 1057
5. Policy decisions and judicial review–extent of 1058
6. Authentication–requirements of 1059
7. Expressed to be taken in the name of 1060
8. Ministerial responsibility–extent of 1061
9. Order–requirements of 1061
10. Name of the Governor 1062
11. Conduct of business-clause (3) 1063
12. Rules of business–allocation of 1064
Art. 167. Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to Governor, etc. 1065
CHAPTER III—THE STATE LEGISLATURE
General
Art. 168. Constitution of Legislatures in States 1066
Art. 169. Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States 1067
1. Peculiar voting pattern 1067
2. “Present and voting” 1067
3. Amendment–meaning 1067
Art. 170. Composition of the Legislative Assemblies 1068
1. Legislative History 1069
2. Composition–connected provisions 1070
Art. 171. Composition of the Legislative Councils 1070
1. Electorates–meaninig of 1071
Art. 172. Duration of State Legislatures 1072
1. “Commencement of the Assemble” 1072
Art. 173. Qualification for membership of the State Legislature 1073
1. Legislative History 1073
2. Object of oath 1073
3. Oath in prescribed manner is mandatory 1074
4. Oath or affirmation before scrutiny 1074
5. Nomination paper–mandatory 1074
6. Age requirements 1075
7. Duty of Election Tribunal 1075
8. Educational requirements’ 1075
Art. 174. Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and dissolution. 1075
1. Legislative History 1076
2. Dissolved Assembly–Article 174 not applicable 1077
3. Articles 174 and 324–no conflict 1077
4. Prorogation and dissolution 1077
5. “The House”, “either House”–meaning 1078
Art. 175. Right of Governor to address and send messages to the House or Houses 1078
Art. 176. Special address by the Governor 1079
Art. 177. Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as respects the Houses 1079
1. Privileges conferred 1080
Art. 178. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly 1080
Art. 179. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker 1080
Art. 180. Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker 1081
1. Pro-tem Speaker-role of 1081
Art. 181. The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration 1081
Art. 182. The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council 1082
Art. 183. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman 1082
Art. 184. Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman 1082
Art. 185. The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration. 1083
Art. 186. Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker and Chairman and Deputy Chairman 1093
Art. 187. Secretariat of State Legislature 1083
Conduct of Business
Art. 188. Oath or affirmation by members 1084
Art. 189. Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum 1084
1. Non-member Ministers–no right to vote 1085
Disqualifications of Members
Art. 190. Vacation of seats. 1085
1. Legislative history 1086
2. Article 190(3)–scope 1086
3. Resignation-right of each member 1087
Art. 191. Disqualifications for membership 1087
1. Disqualification–scope not to be altered: 1088
2. Disqualification and natural justice 1089
3. “Office of profit”–meaning of 1089
4. Auditor/employee of Government Company–office of profit 1091
5. Under the Government 1092
6. “Adherence to Foreign state” 1092
7. Disqualification-conviction set aside in appeal–effect 1092
Art. 192. Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members 1093
1. Legislative history 1093
2. Scope 1094
3. Opinion of Election Commission 1094
4. Judicial review of decision 1095
Art. 193. Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirma-tion under article 188 or when not qualified or when disquali-fied 1095
Powers, Privileges and Immunities of State Legislatures and their Members
Art. 194. Powers, privileges, etc. of the Houses of Legislatures and of the members and committees thereof. 1095
1. Legislative history 1096
2. Presidential reference 1097
3. Conflict–referred to a seven judge bench 1098
4. Freedom of Speech and Article 19 1098
5. Immunity to members 1098
6. Free speech–immunity only for members 1098
7. Privileges, powers and immunities–nature of 1099
8. Fundamental rights and Parliamentary privileges 1099
9. Tenth Schedule—impact of 1099
10. Article 194(2)–publication under authority of the House 1100
11. Article 194(2)–“in respect of anything said”–meaning 1100
12. “Proceedings” 1100
13. Immunity–importance of 1100
14. Article 194(3)–powers–meaning 1101
15. Clause (3)–pre-existing privileges 1101
16. Clause (4) 1101
17. Law subject to fundamental rights 1101
18. Breach of privilege–powers of Speaker 1102
19. Article 226–maintainability of petition 1102
20. Bribing Member of Parliament—effect 1103
Art. 195. Salaries and allowances of members 1103
Legislative Procedure
Art. 196. Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills 1103
1. Corresponding provisions 1104
2. Prorogation and dissolution 1104
3. Bill pending assent of President or Governor-Clause (5) 1105
Art. 197. Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as to Bills other than Money Bills 1105
1. Corresponding provisions 1106
Art. 198. Special procedure in respect of Money Bills 1106
1. Corresponding provisions 1107
2. Article 199(4)–directory in nature 1107
Art. 199. Definition of “Money Bills” 1107
1. Corresponding provisions 1108
2. Article 199(4)–directory in nature 1108
Art. 200. Assent to Bills 1109
1. Corresponding provisions 1109
2. Governor’s assent 1109
3. No time limit prescribed 1110
4. Reconsideration by successor House 1110
5. Governor’s discretion or President’s assent not justiciable 1111
Art. 201. Bills reserved for consideration 1111
Procedure in Financial Matters
Art. 202. Annual financial statement 1112
1. Corresponding provisions 1113
2. Directions of Court not included 1113
Art. 203. Procedure in Legislature with respect to estimates 1113
1. Corresponding provisions 1114
2. Governor–to act on recommendation 1114
Art. 204. Appropriation Bills 1114
1. Corresponding provisions 1115
Art. 205. Supplementary, additional, or excess grants 1115
1. Corresponding provisions 1116
2. Demand for excess grant 1116
Art. 206. Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants 1116
1. Corresponding provisions 1117
Art. 207. Special provisions as to financial Bills 1117
1. Corresponding provisions 1118
Procedure Generally
Art. 208. Rules of procedure 1118
1. Corresponding provisions 1118
2. Rules and Article 21 1119
3. Rules subject to Part-III 1119
Art. 209. Regulation by law of procedure in the Legislature of the State in relation to financial business 1119
Art. 210. Language to be used in the Legislature 1119
Art. 211. Restriction on discussion in the Legislature 1120
1. Corresponding provisions 1120
2. Action to be taken by the House 1121
3. Article 211–prohibition absolute 1121
Art. 212. Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the Legislature 1121
1. Corresponding provisions 1122
2. No immunity from illegality 1122

VOLUME 2
CHAPTER IV—LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR
Art. 213. Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature 1123
1. Article 123–Analogous provisions 1124
2. Article 213–not limited to List II and III 1125
3. Governor’s satisfaction and justificable 1125
4. Ordinance–replacement by statute 1125
CHAPTER V—THE HIGH COURT IN THE STATES
Art. 214. High Courts for States 1126
1. Legislative Background 1126
2. Creation of High Courts 1127
3. High Court–seat of 1127
4. Constitution of Benches 1128
5. Bombay High Court’s original jurisdiction–historical back-graound 1128
6. Common High Courts 1128
7. High Courts for Union Territories 1129
8. High Courts–position inter se 1129
9. States Reorganisation Act, 1956–applicability of 1129
Art. 215. High Courts to be courts of record 1130
1. Analogous provisions 1130
2. Court of Record–meaning of 1130
3. Power of review 1131
4. Power to punish for contempt–historical background 1131
5. Contempt jurisdiction–no review of earlier order 1131
6. Contempt jurisdiction–reason for 1131
7. Power to punish for contempt–nature of 1132
8. Contempt Proceedings–nature of 1133
9. Media and contempt of court 1133
10. Power to punish for contempt–when can be exercised 1134
11. “Contempt and Tribunals” 1134
12. Criminal contempt–suo motu powers 1135
13. Criminal Procedure Code–not applicable 1135
14. Limitation prescribed under the Indian Penal Code–not appli-cable 1136
15. Enactment of Contempt of Court Act, 1971–effect of 1136
16. Contempt—acts committed before subordinate courts 1137
17. Intention–relevancy of 1138
18. Role of Supreme Court in contempt cases 1138
19. Transfer of contempt cases 1138
20. Contempt proceedings–may be heard by different judge 1139
21. Suspension of advocates’ licence–not permissible 1139
Art. 216. Constitution of High Courts 1139
Art. 217. Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court 1140
1. Legislative history 1142
2. Judge of a High Court–position of 1142
3. Judicial conduct–serious blow 1142
4. Supreme Court vis–a–vis the High Court 1143
5. Prospective resignation–can be withdrawn 1143
6. Prescription as to age 1143
7. No writ for appointment 1144
8. Appointment–different from transfer 1144
9. Article 217(2)(a)–“judicial office”–meaning of 1144
10. Sitting Judges–appointment to other offices 1145
11. “Consultation”–meaning of 1146
12. Consultation–not applicable to Tribunals 1148
13. Acting Chief Justice has all powers 1148
14. Consultation by Chief Justice with the collegium 1148
15. Rationale for consultation 1148
16. Primacy of the opinion of the Chief Justice 1149
17. Appointment of judges—norms laid down 1151 Special Reference case 1154
18. Judicial Review excluded 1155
19. “Governor” and “President”–meaning of 1155
20. No right of person proposed for appointment 1155
21. No separate process of non–appointment 1156
22. Presidential warrant 1156
23. Age of a judge–power of the President 1156
24. Powers of the Bar Association 1159
25. Appointment and transfers—a pathetic saga 1159
Art. 218. Application of certain provisions relating to Supreme Court to High Courts 1160
Art. 219. Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts 1161
1. Scope 1161
2. Oath on transfer–necessity, reasons for 1161
Art. 220. Restriction on practice after being a permanent Judge 1162
Art. 221. Salaries, etc., of Judges 1162
Art. 222. Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another 1163
1. Legislative History 1164
2. Transfer of Judges–shameful record 1164
3. Transfer–meaning of 1164
4. Transfer–position under Government of India Act, 1935 1165
5. Consent of transferred judge–not required 1165
6. Rationale for necessity of consultation with judiciary 1166
7. “..consultation with the Chief Justice of India..”–meaning, importance and process of 1166
8. Initiation of the proposal for transfer 1168
9. Matters to be considered by the Chief Justice 1168
10. Judicial Review 1169
11. Power to transfer–when can be exercised 1170
12. Norms for transfer of judges 1171
13. Safeguards in Article 222 1172
14. Transfers on account of misbehavior–validity of 1173
15. Policy transfers–validity of 1173
16. Punitive transfers 1174
17. Compensatory Allowance 1174
18. Subsequent transfers 1174
19. Correspondence relating to transfer–no privilege 1175
20. Transfer–different from appointment 1175
21. Transfer–effect of 1175
22. Transfer–how effected 1176
23. Creation of new States 1176
24. “President”–meaning of 1176
25. “..judge of High Court…”–includes Chief Justice 1176
Art. 223. Appointment of acting Chief Justice 1177
Art. 224. Appointment of additional and acting Judges 1177
1. Legislative History 1178
2. Nature and scope 1178
3. Appointment of additional judges–circumstances and condi-tions 1179
4. Additional judges–functions of 1179
5. Extension of term and preferential right of additional judges 1180
6. Procedure for extension of term–extent of consultation for rea–ppointment 1181
7. Period of extension/reappoint–ment 1181
8. Non extension of term–right to be heard 1182
9. Right to be considered for extension/appointment–justiciable 1183
10. Court’s power to make appointments 1183
Art. 224A. Appointment of retired Judges at sittings of High Courts 1183
Art. 225. Jurisdiction of existing High Courts 1184
1. Legislative History 1184
2. Position prior to Independence 1185
3. Jurisdiction of High Courts 1185
4. Powers of High Courts preserved 1185
5. Contempt–powers under Article 225 1186
6. Article 225 vis–a–vis Article 226 1186
7. Admiralty jurisdiction 1186
8. Rules–interpretation of 1187
Art. 226. Power of High Courts to issue certain writs 1187
1. Introductory note 1191
2. Legislative History 1191 “226. Power of High Courts to issue certain writs” 1191
3. Jammu & Kashmir 1192
4. Clause (2)–15th Amendment–effect of 1192
5. Historical Background 1193
6. Wide powers to be exercised with self–restraint 1193
7. High Court–review of selection by CJI 1197
8. Judicial review–scope and extent of power 1197
9. Powers of the Charter High Courts 1198
10. Prerogative writs 1199
11. “Directions or Orders”–scope of 1199
12. Directions after judgment 1200
13. No direction contrary to law 1201
14. Nature of proceedings 1201
15. Writs against State Financial Corporations 1202
16. Power to recall judgment 1202
17. Writs against non–governmental entities 1203
18. Co-operative Societies–maintainability of writ petition 1205
19. Article 226 and other constitutional provisions 1206
20. Resolution of private dispute not permissible 1206
21. Non–obstante clause 1207
22. Tribunals under Articles 323A and 323B–impact of Article 226 1207
23. ‘Administration of Tribunals’ 1208
24. Territorial jurisdiction 1208
141. Miscellaneous proceedings 1209
25. Cause of action–meaning of 1211
26. Calcutta High Court–strictures against 1212
27. Judicial review–nature and scope of 1213
28. Judicial review and economic legislation 1215
29. Judicial review–court martial proceedings 1215
30. Judicial review of administrative action 1216
31. Wednesbury principle 1216
32. Article 226 and equitable jurisdiction 1217
33. Article 226 and Code of Civil Procedure 1217
34. Article 226–not a court of appeal 1217
35. Discretionary power–principles of judicial review 1218
36. Statutory power–improper exercise–Article 226 applicable 1219
37. High Court–appellate and writ jurisdiction 1219
38. “Including Writs in the nature…..” 1220
39. Administrative authorities–limited interference 1220
40. Threat of violation of rights–writ maintainable 1220
41. Compensation–power to award 1220
42. Contractual rights/tenders–interference under Article 226 1223
43. Interim orders under Article 226 1227
44. Interim order–merger with final order 1231
45. Interim orders–effect of appeal 1231
46. Relief is discretionary 1231
47. Equity–no relief even against wrong orders 1233
48. “Perverse orders–meaning” 1233
49. Futile or infructuous writs will not be issued 1233
50. Public Interest Litigation (PIL)–Equitable jurisdiction 1234
51. Public Interest Litigation (PIL)–misuse to be prevented 1236
52. Public Interest Litigation–interim orders 1237
53. Equitable jurisdiction–delay/laches 1237
54. Questions of fact 1239
55. Findings of fact 1241
56. Jurisdictional facts 1242
57. Show cause notices–alternative remedy 1242
58. Necessary and proper parties 1245
59. Aggrieved Person/locus standi–general principles 1246
60. Locus standi–tax/revenue matters 1247
61. Locus standi in Public Interest Litigation (PIL) 1248
62. Locus standi–Labour/service matters 1248
63. Locus Standi–miscellaneous cases 1249
64. Appellate remedy not available–effect 1251
65. Civil Court Jurisdiction barred–writ maintainable 1251
66. Refund of tax–maintainability 1251
67. Res judicata/Constructive res judicata 1252
68. Res Judicata and Public Interest Litigation 1254
69. Criminal matters 1254
70. Custodial death/detention—payment of damages 1257
71. “Power to quash proceedings” 1257
72. Alternative remedy 1258
73. Alternate remedy–exceptions to the rule 1261
74. Alternative remedy–plea at final hearing 1264
75. Violation of principles of natural justice 1265
76. Alternate remedy–pre–deposit of duty 1266
77. Illustrative cases writs refused on grounds of alternate remedy 1266
78. Clause (4)–scope 1268
79. Conduct of the petitioner 1268
80. Aquiescence, waiver and estoppel 1269
81. Abuse of process–effect of 1270
82. Possibility of abuse not to invalidate statute 1270
83. Burden of proof 1270
84. Power–mala fide exercise of 1271
85. Amendment passed hurriedly–still valid 1272
86. Writs against the legislature 1272
87. Article 226–public law remedy 1273
88. Valid statute–judicial review is limited 1274
89. Judicial review–exercise of contractual powers 1274
90. English law–applicability 1274
91. “For any other purpose” 1275
92. Policy–no interference 1275
93. Show cause notice–no interference 1277
94. Re–appreciation of evidence 1277
95. Remand for re–appreciation of evidence–improper 1278
96. Findings not based on evidence, conjectures or surmises 1278
97. Evidence–nature and adequacy of 1279
98. Arbitration–Award of arbitrator 1279
99. Elections–Panchayats–maintainability of writs 1280
100. Writ petitions–filing by labour union 1280
101. Error of law and of facts 1280
102. Civil Procedure Code–applicability 1281
103. Limitation Act–applicability 1283
104. Land acquisition matters–Discretionary remedy refused 1283
105. Article 226–part of basic structure 1284
106. Article 226–jurisdiction not excluded by ouster/finality clause 1284
107. Private dispute–no interference 1285
108. Minority institutions–status not to be decided under Article 226 1285
109. Co–operative societies–writs against 1285
110. Court martial proceedings–writs against 1286
111. Dismissal in limine–effect of 1286
112. Final and interim orders–difference between 1287
113. Speaking order–necessity to pass 1287
114. Review–power and duty 1288
115. Conduct of parties–equitable relief 1288
116. Conduct– suppression must be of material facts 1289
117. Practice and procedure 1290
118. Necessary and proper party 1291
119. Concession by Govt. Counsel–effect 1292
120. Affidavits/Counter-affidavits/Rejoinder–importance of 1292
121. Counter affidavits 1293
122. Rejoinder 1294
123. Impugned orders–not to be supplemented by affidavits 1294
124. New plea–permissibility 1294
125. Education 1295
126. Labour/Service matters 1296
127. Miscellaneous matters 1301
Specific writs
Certiorari, Prohibition, Mandamus,
Habeas Corpus, Quo Warranto
128. Specific writs 1304
Writ of Certiorari
129. Certiorari–historical background 1304
130. Essential features and general scope 1304
131. Certiorari–only against judicial/quasi judicial bodies 1306
132. Jurisdictional facts 1306
133. Acquiescence 1307
134. Administrative and judicial/quasi–judicial acts 1307
135. Judicial/quasi–judicial acts 1309
136. Administrative orders 1310
137. Error of law apparent on the face of the record 1310
138. Certiorari and prohibition–difference between 1311
139. Error apparent–Illustrative examples 1312
140. Miscellaneous observations: 1312
141. Certiorari maintainable–illustrative examples: 1313
142. Certiorari not maintainable–illustrative examples: 1313
143. Alternative remedy 1314
Writ of Prohibition
144. Prohibition and certiorari 1315
145. Prohibition–general principles and applicability 1315
146. Prohibition against executive authority 1316
147. Alternative remedy 1316
148. Prohibition–miscellaneous issues 1317
Writ of Mandamus
149. Mandamus–historical background 1317
150. Mandamus–general principles 1318
151. Mandamus–nature and scope of 1318
152. No mandamus against the legislature 1320
153. Mandamus–public duty 1320
154. Mandamus–only on failure to perform duty 1321
155. Mandamus and contractual matters 1322
156. Mandamus against companies/corporations 1322
157. Mandamus to issue specific directions 1323
158. Discretion–no direction to act in a particular manner 1324
159. Discretion–erroneous exercise of 1325
160. Mandamus to direct refund of duty 1325
161. Supreme Court–limited grounds for interference 1326
162. Mandamus–miscellaneous issues 1327
163. Illustrative cases–mandamus permissible 1327
164. Illustrative cases–mandamus not permissible 1328
Writ of Habeas Corpus
Writ of Quo Warranto
165. Nature and scope 1331
Art. 226A. [Repealed]. 1332
1. Legislative history 1333
Art. 227. Power of superintendence over all Courts by the High Court 1333
1. Legislative history 1334
2. Nature and scope of power 1335
3. Adverse remarks against subordinate judiciary 1337
4. Administrative powers–exercise of 1338
5. Alternative remedy and Article 227 1338
6. Article 227 and the Code of Civil Procedure 1338
7. Power to issue directions 1338
8. Power to be used sparingly 1339
9. Judicial Review and Basic structure 1339
10. No appellate powers 1340
11. Article 227 and revision under Section 115, CPC 1340
12. Tribunals–meaning of 1341
13. Article 227 and other constitutional provisions 1341
14. Laches or delay 1341
15. Findings of fact 1342
16. Territorial limits 1343
17. Practice and procedure 1343
18. Miscellaneous issues: 1343
Art. 228. Transfer of certain cases to High Court 1344
1. Article 228–when can be applied 1345
2. “Substantial question….of the Constitution”–meaning of 1345
3. “Necessary for disposal of the case”–meaning of 1347
4. Artcile 228 and 227–comparison of High Court’s powers 1348
Art. 228A. [Repealed] 1348
1. Legislative history 1348
Art. 229. Officers and servants and the expenses of High Courts 1350
1. Legislative History 1351
2. Objective of the Article 1352
3. “Appointment”–meaning of 1352
4. Proviso to clause (2)–scope of 1352
5. Powers of the Chief Justice 1353
6. Premature increments 1354
7. Court employees–fixation of pay scales 1354
8. Delegation by the Chief Justice 1354
9. Power to appoint committees 1355
10. Dismissal–consultation with Public Service Commission not required 1355
11. Creation of posts 1355
12. Conflict between the Chief Justice and the State Government 1356
13. Judiciary and the State need for consensus 1357
14. Power of other judges to issue directions 1357
15. Mandamus to State Government should be avoided 1359
16. Parity in scales of pay 1359
17. Articles 229 and 235–scope 1361
18. Chief Justice–duty to examine representations 1361
Art. 230. Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories. 1361
1. Legislative history 1362
Art. 231. Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States 1362
1. Legislative history 1363
Art. 232. Omitted by the Constitution (7th Amendment) Act, 1956 1363
1. Legislative history 1364
2. Article 230–232–general comments 1364
CHAPTER VI—SUBORDINATE COURTS
Art. 233. Appointment of district judges. 1365
1. Historical background 1365
2. Appointment–power of Governor 1366
3. Recruitment—overriding nature 1366
4. Initial promotion–conflicting views 1367
5. Consultation–significance of 1367
6. High Court–Whether it means Full Court 1368
7. Conflicts between Executive and Judiciary to be avoided 1369
8. Court – includes Family Courts 1369
9. Executive and judicial pay Scales–parity 1369
8. No consultation–Rules invalid 1370
9. ‘The service’–meaning 1370
10.
Art. 233 and
Art. 234–relative scope 1370
11.
Art. 233 and
Art. 235 1370
12. Seven years practice–computation of 1371
13. ‘Posting’–meaning of 1371
14. No right to post of District Judge 1372
15. ‘Advocate or pleader’–meaning of 1372
16. Subordinate judiciary–several directions issued 1372
Art. 233A. Validation of appointments of, and judgments, etc., deli-vered by, certain district judges 1372
1. Legislative history 1373
Art. 234. Recruitment of persons other than district judges to the judi-cial service 1374
1. Articles 234 & 233–relative scope 1374
2. Consultation–mandatory 1375
Art. 235. Control over subordinate courts. 1375
1. Control–judicial & administrative 1375
2. Control and independence of the judiciary 1376
3. Right of Appeal 1376
4. Control–includes disciplinary proceedings 1377
5. Control–meaning of 1377
6. Control–other matters 1378
7. High Court–need to avoid intemperate remarks 1379
8. Rights of Appeal 1379
9. Role of Chief Justice 1380
10. Control–no power to refuse higher pay 1380
11. Administrative control under other Acts 1380
12. Powers can be exercised by an Administrative Committee 1380
13. Application of Articles 309 & 311 1381
14. Powers of Court/Governor to impose punishment 1382
15. Compulsory Retirement—power of 1382
Art. 236. Interpretation 1382
1. District Judge–meaning 1383
Art. 237. Application of the provisions of this Chapter to certain class or classes of magistrates 1383
PART VII
THE STATES IN PART B OF THE FIRST SCHEDULE
Art. 238. [Repealed.] 1385
PART VIII
THE UNION TERRITORIES
Art. 239. Administration of Union territories 1387
1. Article 239 Scope 1387
2. Union Territory of Delhi as a Part C State: a separate entity 1388
3. Lt. Governor’s powers 1388
4. President’s role as the executive head 1389
Art. 239-A. Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union territories 1390
1. Article 239A 1390
Art. 239AA. Special provisions with respect to Delhi 1391
Art. 239AB. Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery 1393
Art. 239B. Power of administrator to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature 1394
Art. 240. Power of President to make regulations for certain Union territories 1395
1. President–Exercise of Power 1396
Art. 241. High Courts for Union Territories 1397
Art. 242. [Repealed.] 1398
PART IX
THE PANCHAYATS
Art. 243. Definitions 1399
1. Legislative Background 1399
2. Objects and reasons for insertion 1400
3. Self Government–meaning 1400
Art. 243A. Gram Sabha 1401
1. Gram Sabha and village–meaning 1401
2. Village–identity to be maintained 1401
Art. 243B. Constitution of Panchayats 1402
1. Panchavat–demarcation of territorial area 1402
Art. 243C. Composition of Panchayats 1402
1. Role of State Legislature 1404
2. Chairperson-election of…………. 1404
Art. 243D. Reservation of seats 1404
1. Resevation of post of Sarpanch 1406
Art. 243E. Duration of Panchayats etc. 1406
1. Five years–mandatory 1407
Art. 243F. Disqualifications for memberships 1407
Art. 243G. Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats 1408
Art. 243H. Powers to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Panchayats 1408
Art. 243I. Constitution of Finance Commission to review financial position 1409
Art. 243J. Audit of accounts of Panchayats 1410
Art. 243K. Elections to the Panchayats 1410
1. Countermanding of elections 1410
2. Power of Election Commission 1411
Art. 243L. Application to Union territories 1411
Art. 243M. Part not to apply to certain areas 1412
Art. 243N. Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats 1413
Art. 243O. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters 1413
1. Exclusion of Court’s jurisdiction–reason for 1414
PART IX-A
THE MUNICIPALITIES
Art. 243P. Definitions 1417
1. Scope 1417
Art. 243Q. Constitution of Municipalities 1418
1. Municipality–meaning of 1419
2. Proviso to clause (1)–scope of 1419
Art. 243R. Composition of Municipalities 1420
1. Elected and nominated members distinct…. 1420
Art. 243S. Constitution and Composition of Wards Committees, etc. 1421
Art. 243T. Reservation of seats 1422
1. Rationale for reservations 1422
2. Reserved posts–may be filled by persons elected from general category 1423
3. Backward Classes–may be ascertained by States 1423
Art. 243U. Duration of Municipalities, etc. 1424
1. Scope 1424
Art. 243V. Disqualifications for membership 1425
Art. 243W. Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc. 1426
1. Scope 1426
2. Fee payable by user of services 1427
Art. 243X. Power to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Municipalities 1427
Art. 243Y. Finance Commission 1428
Art. 243Z. Audit of accounts of Municipalities 1428
Art. 243ZA. Elections to the Municipalities 1429
Art. 243ZB. Application to Union territories 1429
Art. 243ZC. Part not to apply to certain areas 1429
Art. 243ZD. Committee for district planning 1429
Art. 243ZE. Committee for Metropolitan planning 1430
Art. 243ZF. Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities 1432
Art. 243ZG. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters 1432
1. Nature of bar under Article 243ZG 1432
2. Bar to interference by Courts–Scope of 1433
3. Survey permissible 1434
PART X
THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS
Art. 244. Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal areas 1435
1. Administration and control–Article 244(1) 1435
2. Self contained code 1436
3. Article 244 & the Sixth Schedule 1436
Art. 244A. Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tri-bal areas in Assam and creation of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor 1436
1. Legislative history 1437
2. Statement of objects and reasons 1437
PART XI
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES
CHAPTER I—LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS
Distribution of Legislative Powers
Art. 245. Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States 1439
1. Federalism and bias towards Centre 1440
2. Power to issue ordinances 1440
3. Functions of government–executive, legislative and judicial 1441
4. Plenary power to legislate 1441
5. Alteration of contractual rights 1443
6. Legislation–natural justice inapplicable 1443
7. Fundamental Rights will prevail 1443
8. Legislative power and taxation 1444
9. Legislative power and amending power 1445
10. Legislative power and legitimate expectation 1445
11. Retrospective operation of laws 1446
12. Retrospective operation of tax laws 1448
13. Clarificatory amendments-retrospective 1450
14. Extra-territorial operation of tax and other laws 1450
15. Validation acts 1452
16. Parliamentary validation of invalid State Acts 1457
17. Validating Act–change in deeming facts 1458
18. Delegation of powers 1458
19. Essential legislative functions cannot be delegated 1459
20. Delegation of powers–important principles 1460
21. Delegated and conditional legislation 1462
22. Conditional legislation–three categories 1463
23. Need for hearing 1463
24. Source of power–delegated/ conditional legislation 1463
25. Illustrative cases of excessive delegation 1464
26. Illustrative cases–no excessive delegation 1464
27. Subordinate legislation 1468
28. Repeal of legislative provisions 1469
29. Constitutional validity of statutes 1469
30. Plea of mala fides 1470
31. Amendment passed hurriedly–still valid 1471
32. Effective date of subordinate legislation 1471
33. Publication 1471
34. Interpretation of legislative entries–Schedule VII 1471
Art. 246. Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by the Legis-latures of States 1471
1. Legislative History 1472
2. Nature and Scope 1472
3. Legislation by different states-effect of comparison 1475
4. “Notwithstanding”, “subject to”, “with respect to”-meaning 1475
5. Power with reference to List III 1477
6. Clause (2) 1477
7. Clause (3)-scope of 1479
8. Parliament’s power regarding Union Territories-Clause (4) 1480
9. Legislative powers-limitations 1480
10. Doctrine of police power 1481
11. Enactment/notification beyond legislative competence 1482
12. Legislative competence-illustrative cases 1482
13. Lack of legislative competence-illustrative cases 1482
Art. 247. Power of Parliament to provide for the establishment of cer-tain additional courts 1483
Art. 248. Residuary power of legislation 1484
1. Legislative competence of Parliament–tests 1484
2. Residuary power 1484
3. Union Territories–power of Parliament 1485
4. Miscellaneous observations 1485
Art. 249. Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest 1485
Art. 250. Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any matter in the State List if a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation 1486
Art. 251. Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament under articles 249 and 250 and laws made by the Legislatures of States 1486
Art. 252. Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State 1486
1. Legislative history 1487
2. Legislature–term excludes Governor 1487
3. Plenary power of Parliament 1488
4. Resolutions under Article 252(1) –effect of 1488
5. Article 263 and Article 252 1489
6. Clause (2)–amendment and repeal meaning 1489
7. Adopted in like manner–meaning 1489
Art. 253. Legislation for giving effect to international agreements 1489
1. Non obstante clause–effect of 1490
2. International conventions–binding nature 1490
3. International agreements and territorial disputes 1491
Art. 254. Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States 1491
1. Legislative history 1492
2. Conflict with reference to Concurrent List 1492
3. Article 254 and Article 13 1493
4. Clauses (1) and (2)–relative scope 1493
5. Article 254 and State legislation 1494
6. State law-requirements to prevail 1495
7. “Reserved for consideration” 1495
8. Repugnancy–tests to determine 1495
9. Doctrine of occupied field 1499
10. Repugnancy–illustrative cases 1499
11. Repugnancy absent—illustrative cases 1501
12. Later enactment will prevail 1502
13. Article 254(2)– “in respect of the same matter” 1502
14. Presidential assent–legislative procedure 1503
15. Presidential assent–requirements and effect of 1503
16. Assent–meaning 1505
17. Assent only with reference to specific legislation 1505
18. Rule of implied repeal 1505
19. Proviso to Article 254(2)–effect of 1507
20. Making and commencement of laws 1507
Art. 255. Requirements as to recommendations and previous sanctions to be regarded as matters of procedure only 1507
CHAPTER II—ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS
General
Art. 256. Obligation of States and the Union 1509
1. Directions or executive instructions 1510
2. For that purpose 1510
Art. 257. Control of the Union over States in certain cases 1510
1. Letter of a Joint Secretary–not a directive 1511
Art. 257A. [Repealed] 1511
1. Legislative history 1511
Art. 258. Power of the Union to confer powers etc., on States in certain cases 1512
Art. 258A. Power of the States to entrust functions to the Union 1512
Art. 259. [Repealed] 1512
1. Legislative history 1513
Art. 260. Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories outside India 1513
Art. 261. Public acts, records and judicial proceedings 1513
Disputes Relating to Waters
Art. 262. Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers or river valleys 1513
Co-ordination between States
Art. 263. Provisions with respect to an Inter-State Council 1514
PART XII
FINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS AND SUITS
CHAPTER I—FINANCE
General
Art. 264. Interpretation 1517
Art. 265. Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law 1517
1. Taxation by valid laws 1518
2. Taxation - essential requirements 1518
3. “Authority of law” 1519
4. Tax laws and fundamental rights 1520
5. Tax laws and aspect theory 1521
6.
Art. 265 and Parts XII and XIII 1522
7. Nature of levy v. measure of levy 1522
8. Taxation-nomenclature not relevant 1524
9. Tax laws–levy, assessment, collection and recovery 1525
10. Tax laws–purpose immaterial 1525
11. Tax laws wide latitude to legislature 1526
12. Retrospective operation of tax laws 1527
13. Taxation not by subordinate legislation 1527
14. Tax–meaning 1528
15. Fee–meaning of 1529
16. Concept of quid pro quo has changed 1530
17. Royalty is not a tax 1531
18. Tax and fee–distinction between 1531
19. Tax laws and social objectives 1533
20. Relation with Articles 38 and 39 1533
21. Article 265 and other constitutional provisions 1534
22. State–duty to act fairly and seasonably 1534
23. Taxation–distinct from regulation or control 1534
24. Taxes/Fees–regulatory and compensatory 1534
25. Fee–importance of quid pro quo 1537
26. Fees–broad correlation sufficient 1539
27. Fees–credit to Consolidated Fund not necessary 1540
28. Tax and fees–broad principles summarised 1540
29. Illustrative cases–levy held to be fee 1543
30. Illustrative cases–levy held to be tax 1543
31. Refund and doctrine of unjust enrichment 1544
32. Direction for interest and statutory limit 1546
33. Power to make laws/legislative competence 1547
34. Retrospective operation of tax laws 1548
35. Double taxation–whether impermissible 1548
36. Acquiescence–not a ground to deny relief 1549
37. Tax laws and procedure 1549
38. Tax laws–pre-deposit of duty 1550
39. Court fee–nature and scope 1550
40. Fee and Cess 1551
Art. 266. Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States 1552
1. Clause (3)–“law”–meaning of 1552
2. Article 278–an exception to Article 266 1553
3. Non-compliance of Article 266 – effect on validity 1553
Art. 267. Contingency Fund 1553
1. Contingency fund 1554
Distribution of Revenues between the Union and the States
Art. 268. Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States 1554
Art. 268-A. Service tax levied by Union and collected appropriated by the Union and the States 1554
Art. 269. Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States 1555
1. Legislative History 1556
2. Tax on inter-state sales – background 1557
3. “........... duties and taxes shall be levied and collected......” importance of 1558
4. Consignment tax- history of Article 269(3) 1558
5. Taxes on inter-state consignment of goods – reasons for inclu-sion 1559
6. Central Government taxing itself – proceeds to be assigned to States 1559
7. Miscellaneous issue 1559
Art. 270. Taxes levied and distributed between the Union and the States 1560
1. Legislative history 1560
2. Proceeds from Union Territories 1561
3. Tax on income–whether includes surcharge on sales tax 1561
Art. 271. Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes of the
Union 1562
1. Surcharge–legislative history 1562
2. Surcharge–meaning and purpose of 1562
Art. 272. Taxes which are levied and collected by the Union and may be distributed between the Union and the States 1563
1. Legislative history 1563
2. Scope 1564
Art. 273. Grants in lieu of export duty on jute and jute products 1564
1. Scope 1564
Art. 274. Prior recommendation of President required to Bills affecting taxation in which States are interested 1564
Art. 275. Grants from the Union to certain States 1565
1. Special provisions for tribal people……. 1566
Art. 276. Taxes on professions, trades, callings and employments 1566
1. Legislative history 1567
2. Scope 1568
3. Tax on profession–Nature of 1569
4. Taxes on income–permissibility 1569
5. Tax on profession and income–distinction between 1569
6. Trade 1570
7. Clause (2) – “or” meaning of 1570
8. Excess Levy–unconstitutional 1570
9. Limitation–relates to excess levy and realisation 1570
10. Limit under 276(2) not applicable in totality to all the said authorities 1571
11. Excess Tax collected–whether refundable 1571
12. Refund-writ maintainable 1572
13. Notification levying tax–harmonious interpretation with Constitution 1572
14. Limitation prescribed–applicability to cantonments 1572
15. Partners–whether can be taxed individually 1572
16. Tax on pensioners–whether profession/employment tax 1572
Art. 277. Savings 1573
1. Legislative History 1573
2. “May” – effect of 1574
3. Conditions to be satisfied 1574
4. Nature of saving provision 1574
5. “Was being lawfully levied”– meaning of 1575
6. “Continue to be levied”– meaning of 1575
7. Continuity of the tax 1576
8. Increase in rate of taxes-not allowed 1576
9. Authorities Collecting tax-can be altered 1577
10. “Local Area”– meaning of 1577
11. Articles 277 & 372–comparative scope 1577
Art. 278. [Repealed] 1578
1. Legislative history 1578
2. Agreements–to ensure financial viability of new States 1579
3. Agreements–limitation of 1579
4. Article 278–overrides Article 372 1579
Art. 279. Calculation of “net proceeds” etc. 1579
Art. 280. Finance Commission 1580
1. Qualification and terms of office 1581
2. Powers of the Commission 1581
3. Articles 280 & 281–collective scope 1581
4. Public purpose – meaning of Article 282 1582
Art. 281. Recommendations of the Finance Commission 1582
Miscellaneous Financial Provisions
Art. 282. Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State out of its rev-enues 1582
1. “Public Purpose”–meaning of 1582
2. Ascertaining public purpose– litigation whether maintainable 1582
Art. 283. Custody, etc., of Consolidated Funds, Contingency Funds and moneys credited to the public accounts 1583
1. Articles 283 & 284–comparitive scope…. 1583
Art. 284. Custody of suitors’ deposits and other moneys received by public servants and courts 1584
1. Investment of moneys 1584
Art. 285. Exemption of property of the Union from State taxation 1584
1. Scope 1585
2. Articles 285 and 289 1585
3. Exemption – not for indirect taxes 1586
4. Union Taxation – meaning 1586
5. Illustrations where the levy was held to be invalid 1586
6. Illustrations where the levy was held to be valid 1587
Art. 286. Restrictions as to imposition of tax on the sale or purchase of goods 1587
1. Legislative History–amendments 1588
2. Validity of the 46th Amendment 1590
3. Article 286–legal background 1590
4. Sales Tax Laws and Article 286 1591
5. Article 286–prior to Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act 1956 1592
6. Article 286–general scope 1592
7. Article 286–impact on 46th amendment 1593
8. Former explanation to Article 286(1) 1593
9. “In the course of export”– meaning of 1594
10. Exports–concept of 1596
11. “In the course of import”– meaning of 1596
12. Article 286(1)(a)–sale outside a State 1597
13. Article 286(1)(b)–export/import transactions - other observa-tions 1598
14. Article 286 and inter–State sales 1599
15. Second sales–not liable to tax 1601
16. Sales tax Validation Act–effect of 1601
17. Former
Art. 286(3)–“law”– meaning of 1601
18. Article 286(3)–Central Laws have overriding effect 1602
19. Article 286 and validity of tax laws- illustrative cases 1602
20. Assessments–pre and post constitution period 1603
Art. 287. Exemption from taxes on electricity 1604
Art. 288. Exemption from taxation by States in respect of water or electricity in certain cases 1604
1. Amendments to existing laws– assent necessary 1605
2. Provisions dealing with manner of payment of tax 1605
Art. 289. Exemption of property and income of a State from Union taxation 1606
1. Legislative history 1606
2. Scheme of the Article 1607
3. Clause (3)–exception to Clause (2) 1608
4. Exemption–essential requirements 1609
5. State Government Undertakings – not exempted 1609
6. Trade or business by Government – taxability of 1609
7. Interpretation of Article 289 – relevant considerations 1609
8. Income of the States–what constitutes 1610
9. Income of Corporations–position of 1610
10. Indirect taxes–not covered by exemption 1611
11. “Property”– meaning of 1612
12. “Trade or business”–meaning of 1612
13. Activities not amounting to trade/business 1612
14. “Union taxation” – applicability to Union Territories 1612
15. Socio-economic activities–not covered by clause (3) 1613
16. Articles 285 & 289–underlying principle and comparative scope 1614
17. Definition clause–not applicable 1614
Art. 290. Adjustment in respect of certain expenses and pensions 1614
Art. 290A. Annual payment to certain Devaswom Funds 1615
Art. 291. [Repealed] 1615
CHAPTER II—BORROWING
Art. 292. Borrowing by the Government of India 1617
Art. 293. Borrowing by states 1617
CHAPTER III—PROPERTY, CONTRACTS, RIGHTS, LIABILITIES,
OBLIGATIONS AND SUITS
Art. 294. Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in certain cases 1619
1. Scope of Articles 294 and 295 1619
2. Recognition of rights, obligations–necessary 1621
3. Non-recognition of obligations 1622
4. Grant by Ruler-terms can be varied 1622
5. Applicability of existing laws to successor State 1622
Art. 295. Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in other cases 1623
Art. 296. Property accruing by escheat or lapse or as bona vacantia 1623
1. Escheat/Bona Vacantia–legislative history 1624
2. Escheat/Bona Vacantia–distinction between 1625
3. English Common Law–applicability of 1625
4. Scope of escheat 1626
5. Escheat–when allowed 1626
6. Lapse–effect of 1626
Art. 297. Things of value within territorial waters or continental shelf and resources of the exclusive economic zone to vest in the Union 1626
Art. 298. Power to carry on trade, etc. 1627
1. Legislative History 1628
2. Scope of Union’s executive power 1628
3. Executive power and Article 14 1628
4. Executive power and other Constitutional provisions 1629
5. Executive power–territorial limits 1630
6. Executive power and right to carry on business 1630
Art. 299. Contracts 1631
1. Legislative history 1632
2. Article 299–provisions mandatory 1632
3. Article 299 and fundamental rights 1633
4. Contract–tests of reasonableness 1633
5. Non-compliance with Article 299–effect of 1634
6. Article 299–protection of public funds 1634
7. Obligations of the State 1635
8. Procedural requirements must be complied with 1635
9. Article 299 and statutory contracts 1635
10. Article 299 and non–statutory contracts 1636
11. Formal documents–necessity of 1637
12. Formal document necessary in some cases 1637
13. Oral contracts–not permissible 1638
14. Article 299 and form of contracts 1638
15. Agreement void–applicability of Sections 65 and 70 of Contract Act, 1872 1639
16. Article 299 and estoppel 1639
17. Ratification of irregularity possible 1640
18. Article 299 and contracts of service 1641
19. Articles 299 and 311 operate in different fields 1641
20. Auction sales and tenders 1641
21. Article 299–principles summarised 1642
22. Disqualification of candidates 1643
23. Illustrative cases 1644
Art. 300. Suits and proceedings 1644
1. Legislative History 1645
2. Nature and scope 1646
3. State as juristic person 1646
4. Sovereign Functions 1646
5. Crown when bound by statute 1647
6. Contractual liability 1648
7. “Can sue or be sued” 1648
8. Suit for injunction 1648
9. Salary of Civil Servants 1649
10. Sovereign Immunity v. Fundamental Rights 1649
11. Tortious liability 1649
CHAPTER IV—RIGHT TO PROPERTY
Art. 300A. Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law 1651
1. Legislative History 1651
2. Right to property-not part of basic structure 1652
3. Property–meaning of 1652
4. Property–includes 1653
5. Property–does not include 1654
6. Pre–constitutional right 1654
7. Deprived of his property 1655
8. Property–enjoyment of 1656
9. Title to property must be established 1656
10. Deprivation–retrospective effect 1656
11. Save by authority of law-mea-ning 1656
12. Compensation 1657
13. Compensation for wrongful deprivation of property 1657
14. Compensation for acquisition of undertaking 1658
15. Article 21 and Article 300A 1658
16. Public purpose 1658
17. Miscellaneous issues 1659
PART XIII
TRADE, COMMERCE AND INTERCOURSE WITHIN
THE TERRITORY OF INDIA
Art. 301. Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse 1661
1. Legislative History 1661
2. Article 301 – significance of 1662
3. Nature and scope 1662
4. Scheme of Articles 301-304 1663
5. American or Australian decisions–applicability 1664
6. Part XIII of the Seventh Schedule 1664
7. Part XIII and powers of taxation 1664
8. Part XIII–importance of movement of goods 1665
9. Articles 301-304 – inter relation 1665
10. Freedom of trade – two-fold exceptions 1666
11. Article 301–“free” – meaning of 1666
12. Article 301 – salient features 1666
13. Restrictions must be direct and immediate 1667
14. Trade, commerce and intercourse–meaning 1667
15. Article 301 and fundamental rights 1668
16. Banning State lotteries of other States 1668
17. Restrictions and regulations 1669
18. Reasonable restrictions – necessity of 1669
19. Article 301 and trade in liquor 1670
20. Executive Action – limitation on 1671
21. Compensatory tax–essential features 1671
22. Compensatory taxes not affected by Article 301 1672
23. Compensatory tax – pre and post 1995 cases 1673
24. Compensatory/regulatory tax – principles summarised 1673
25. Regulatory fees not affected by Article 301 1674
26. Tax laws – direct and immediate restriction necessary 1675
27. Retrospective levy permissible 1676
28. Burden of proof – discriminatory laws 1676
29. Sales Tax/Purchase Tax 1677
30. Laws held not violative of Article 301 1677
31. Motor Vehicles 1678
32. Laws which are violative of Article 301 1679
33. Public interest – context of Article 301 and 304 relevant 1681
Art. 302. Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on trade, com-merce and intercourse 1681
1. Article 302 – relation with Articles 301 and 303 1681
2. Restrictions must be reasonable 1681
3. Article 304(b) and Article 302 1682
Art. 303. Restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union and of the States with regard to trade and commerce 1682
1. Nature and Scope 1682
Art. 304. Restrictions on trade, commerce and inter-course among States 1683
1. Nature and scope 1684
2. Clause (a) – imposition need not be only at entry point 1685
3. Regulatory measures and compensatory taxes –
Art. 304 not applicable 1685
4. Clause (a) – nature and scope 1685
5. Taxes resulting in higher levy 1086
6. Locus standi 1086
7. Discrimination – meaning of 1687
8. Discrimination is with reference to taxation 1687
9. Judicial review 1687
10. Clause (b) – reasonableness – test of 1688
11. Restrictions and fundamental rights 1688
12. Clause (b) – applicability of 1688
13. Article 302 and 304(b) – comparison 1689
14. Article 304(b) – scope of proviso 1690
15. Article 304(b) – proviso – “introduced or moved” 1690
16. Pleadings – importance of 1691
17. Retrospective operation of a statute—effect 1691
18. Article violative not violative of Article 304(b) 1691
Art. 305. Saving of existing laws and laws providing for State monopo-lies 1692
1. Legislative History 1692
2. Nature and Scope 1692
3. Existing law–meaning 1692
Art. 306. [Repealed] 1693
1. Legislative History 1693
Art. 307. Appointment of authority for carrying out the purposes of articles 301 to 304 1693
PART XIV
SERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE STATES
CHAPTER I—SERVICES
Art. 308. Interpretation 1695
Art. 309. Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State 1695
1. Subject to other Constitutional provisions 1696
2. Service conditions – discretion of Government 1698
3. Conditions of Service–meaning and scope 1699
4. Regularisation of illegal appointments 1700
5. Rules under Article 309–legislative in character 1700
6. Conditions of service–retrospective amendments 1701
7. Promotion–only as per rules 1702
8. Article 309–proviso—scope of power 1702
9. Seniority–no vested right 1703
10. Public prosecutors–proviso to Article 309–not applicable 1703
11. Judiciary–consultation with High Court necessary 1704
12. Article 309 and judicial service 1704
13. Rules and executive instructions 1704
14. General and special rules 1705
15. Executive–power to frame rules 1706
16. Rules not framed–effect 1706
17. Selection Committee–powers of 1706
18. Selection–relaxation of rules 1707
19. Selection–open competitive examination 1707
20. Selection/recruitment–within executive domain 1707
21. Selection–character roll 1708
22. Selection–appointment on com-passionate grounds 1708
23. Retirement 1709
24. Regularisation-rules must be followed 1709
25. Ad-hoc appointees – legal status 1710
26. Posts abolished–no right to parity 1710
27. Supervision charges–recovery 1710
28. Policy decisions not to be questioned 1711
Art. 310. Tenure of office of persons serving the Union or a State 1711
1. Doctrine of pleasure 1712
2. “Except as expressly provided….”–meaning 1712
3. Compulsory retirement–payment of three months salary 1713
4. Pleasure-need not be exercised by the President/Governor 1713
5. Civil servant–status and contract 1713
6. Compensation for premature termination 1714
Art. 311. Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a State 1714
1. Legislative history 1716
2. Services–different kinds of posts 1717
3. Article 311(1) and 311(2)–relation between 1718
4. Article 311–two fold protection 1718
5. Article 311 and other constitutional provisions 1718
6. Article 311(2) and 15th amend-ment 1719
7. Article 311(2) and the 42nd amendment 1719
8. Civil post–definition 1719
9. Protection only for civil posts 1720
10. Cadre–meaning 1720
11. Persons governed by Article 311(2) 1721
12. Inquiry–initiation of 1722
13. Scrutiny Committee-need to give further hearing 1723
14. Article 311(2)–termination must be by way of punishment 1723
15. Termination simpliciter–no stigma 1724
16. Termination as per Rules/con-tract–Article 311 inapplicable 1724
17. Punishment–meaning of 1724
18. Punishment–scope for interference limited 1725
19. Departmental Inquiry–requirements of 1725
20. Fresh/supplementary inquiry 1725
21. Departmental inquiry and criminal proceedings 1726
22. Inquiry–dispensing with 1727
23. Inquiry–expeditious hearing necessary 1727
24. Article 311(2)–2nd proviso–matter of public policy 1728
25. Judicial review/right of appeal 1728
26. Judicial review–clause (b) of Article 311(2) 1730
27. “Not reasonably practicable….”–meaning of 1730
28. Inquiry dispensed with under clause (c)–Article 311(2) 1731
29. Satisfaction of President or Governor-exercise of power 1731
30. Natural justice–principles 1732
31. Test of prejudice and natural justice 1732
32. Test of useless formality 1733
33. Substantive and procedural provisions 1734
34. Reasonable opportunity–require-ments of 1734
35. Right to cross-examination 1735
36. Material documents–Supply of copies 1735
37. Natural justice not violated–illustrative cases 1735
38. Natural justice violated–illustrative cases 1736
39. Personal hearing–requirement of 1736
40. Delinquent employee–lawyer’s assistance in enquiry 1737
41. Report of Inquiry Officer–furnishing of 1737
42. Two opportunities necessary 1738
43. Evidence Act–applicability 1738
43. Enquiry Officer/Committee–fin-ding 1738
44. Probation – legal aspects 1738
45. Probationer–termination/dis-charge 1739
46. Temporary appointment–effect of regularisation 1740
47. Temporary appointment–termination of 1740
48. Temporary employee–termination of 1741
49. Motive and foundation 1741
50. Reduction in rank/Reversion 1743
51. Temporary appointees–natural justice 1745
52. Dismissal, removal and reduction in rank 1746
53. Compulsory retirement–whether “dismissal” or “removal” 1746
54. Compulsory retirement–object of 1747
55. Compulsory retirement–whether dismissal or removal 1747
56. Reinstatement after acquittal 1749
57. Seniority and ad hoc appointments 1749
58. Seniority–computation of 1750
59. Seniority–period of military service 1750
60. Seniority–continuous officiation 1751
61. Seniority and ad hoc promotions 1751
62. Seniority–deputationists 1752
63. Seniority and year of allotment 1752
64. Promotion–meaning and requirements of 1752
65. Promotion–preparation of select list 1753
66. Promotion–certain legal aspects 1754
67. Temporary employees–regularisation of 1754
68. Quasi-judicial authority–disciplinary action 1755
69. Suspension–nature and effect of 1756
70. Miscellaneous observations/rulings 1756
Art. 312. All-India services 1759
1. Legislative history 1760
2. Delegated legislation permissible 1760
3. Conditions of service of subordinate judiciary 1760
4. States includes Union Territories 1762
5. First National Judicial Pay Commission 1762
Art. 312A. Power of Parliament to vary or revoke conditions of service of officers of certain services 1762
1. Legislative history 1764
Art. 313. Transitional provisions 1764
Art. 314. [Repealed] 1764
1. Legislative History 1764
2. Principles of Natural Justice to be followed 1765
CHAPTER II—PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS
Art. 315. Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States 1766
1. General observations 1767
2. Member–rights of 1767
3. Members–selection of 1767
4. Selection process–allegation of bias 1768
5. Selection of candidate–no right of appointment 1768
6. Selection by former PSC–not binding 1768
7. Public Service Commission–duty of 1768
Art. 316. Appointment and term of office of members 1768
1. Legislative History 1770
2. Government service–directory and not mandatory 1770
3. Chairman/Member–six year term of office 1770
4. Chairman and Members–relation between 1770
Art. 317. Removal and suspension of a member of a Public Service Commission 1771
1. Removal for misbehaviour 1772
2. Members–not Government Servants 1772
3. Presidential reference–requirements of 1772
4. Presidential reference–whether recommendation of Council of Ministers mandatory 1772
5. Supreme Court–procedure to be followed 1773
6. Article 317(2) 1774
7. Article 317(3) 1774
8. Blindness–not infirmity of body 1774
Art. 318. Power to make regulations as to conditions of service of mem-bers and staff of the Commission 1774
1. Variation in service condition 1775
Art. 319. Prohibition as to the holding of offices by members of Com-mission on ceasing to be such members 1775
1. Bar against other employments 1776
Art. 320. Functions of Public Service Commissions 1776
1. PSC–can formulate its own procedure 1778
2. PSC–directions for regularisation not proper 1779
3. Consultation whether mandatory–clause (3) 1779
4. PSC–Power to formulate own procedure 1780
5. Public Service Commission–rules must be complied with 1780
6. Bypassing PSC not proper 1781
7. PSC recommendations–binding nature 1781
8. Article 320 and Articles 229, 310, 311 1782
9. Impact on Article 311 1782
10. PSC–Not an appellate authority 1783
11. “Memorials or Petitions”–application for review 1783
Art. 321. Power to extend functions of Public Service Commission 1783
1. Local area meaning 1783
Art. 322. Expenses of Public Service Commissions 1784
Art. 323. Reports of Public Service Commissions 1784
1. Reasons for non-acceptance of recommendation 1784
PART XIVA
TRIBUNALS
CHAPTER I—SERVICES
Art. 323A. Administrative tribunals 1787
1. Legislative history 1788
2. Role of Tribunals 1789
3. Jammu and Kashmir–applicability 1789
4. Administrative Tribunal Act, 1985 –validity 1790
5. Debt Recovery Tribunals–legislative competence of Parliament 1791
6. Tribunals–power to invoke Articles 14 and 16 1791
7. Tribunals–not equal to the High Courts 1792
8. Hearing only by a Bench 1792
9. Contempt–power of Tribunals 1792
10. Tribunals–conflicting decisions 1793
11. Article 323A–an enabling provision 1794
12. Tribunal’s power–narrow interpretation to be avoided 1794
13. Supreme Court–power to interfere 1795
14. Compensation for premature termination 1795
15. Government employees–no jurisdiction for High Courts 1795
16. Administration of Tribunals 1795
17. Tribunals–a double edged alternative 1796
18. High Court–review of selection by CJI 1796
19. Abolition of Administrative Tribunals 1796
Art. 323B. Tribunals for other matters 1797
1. Tribunals–legislative competence to create 1799
2. Land Reforms Tribunal and validity 1799
3. Constitutional validity of Article 323B 1800
PART XV
ELECTIONS
Art. 324. Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission 1801
1. Elections–Legislative history 1802
2. Other legal provisions 1803
3. Scheme of Part XV 1803
4. Decision regarding Symbols 1804
5. Election–meaning of 1806
6. Article 324–scope 1806
7. Election Commission–nature and powers of 1807
8. Election Commission direction–mandatory or directory: 1809
9. Election Commission–power to issue directions 1810
10. Free and Fair elections 1810
11. Articles 174 and 324–no conflict 1811
12. Articles 327 and 328 direction and control–meaning 1811
13. Election Commission–disqualification of members 1813
14. Directions issued to Election Commission 1813
15. Multi member commission–amendment ordinance 1814
16. Election Commissioners–abolition of posts 1814
17. Chief Election Commissioner–powers and status 1814
18. Chief Election Commissioner–allegations of bias 1816
19. Election Commission–whether a Tribunal 1816
20. Disputes regarding Symbols 1816
21. Election/Regional Commissioners–removal of 1817
22. “Such staff”–meaning 1817
Art. 325. No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in, a special electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex 1817
1. Single general electoral roll 1817
Art. 326. Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage 1818
1. Reduction of voting age 1818
2. Right to vote–statutory rights 1819
3. Panchayat Roll 1819
Art. 327. Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elec-tions to Legislatures 1820
1. Powers of Parliament–subject to Part III 1821
2. “All other matters” ……….–meaning 1821
3. Subject to the provisions 1821
4. Comparison with Article 329 1822
5. General powers 1822
6. Delimitation Commission 1822
Art. 328. Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to such Legislature 1823
1. Power of State Legislature 1823
Art. 329. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters 1823
1. Non-obstante clause–effect of 1824 Delimitation 1825
2. Writ Petition/Suit–maintainability of 1825
3. High Court–not a Tribunal 1829
4. Special Leave Petition–Article 136–maintainability 1829
5. Election–meaning of 1829
6. Letters Patent Appeal–maintainability 1830
7. Election petition–nature and scope of 1830
8. Election petition in Hindi–permissibility 1831
9. Election petition–locus standi 1831
10. ‘In such manner’–meaning 1831
11. Article 329 and other constitutional provisions 1832
Art. 329A. [Repealed] 1832
PART XVI
SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES
Introduction 1833
History of Reservation Policy 1833
Art. 330. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the people 1834
1. Legislative history 1835
2. Population 1836
3. Buddhist religion–effect of 1990 amendment 1836
Art. 331. Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People 1837
Art. 332. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes 1837
Art. 333. Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States 1839
Art. 334. Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after [sixty years] 1839
Art. 335. Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts 1840
1. Balance between reservation and effciency 1841
2. Mandal case 1842
3. Nagaraj’s case 1843
Art. 336. Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services 1844
Art. 337. Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community 1844
Art. 338. National Commission for Scheduled Castes 1845
1. Legislative History 1848
2. Backward class commissions–an overview 1848
3. “Determination of caste and tribe” 1849
4. Desirability of permanent statutory body 1850
Art. 338-A. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes 1850
Art. 339. Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes 1852
Art. 340. Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes 1853
Art. 341. Scheduled Castes 1854
Art. 342. Scheduled Tribes 1855
1. Scope and applicability 1856
2. Object of Articles 341 and 342 1857
3. Article 16 and Arts. 341 and 342 1857
4. Presidential List-sub-division or sub-grouping not permissible 1858
5. Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes-definition of 1858
6. “Scrutiny Committee”-constitution of 1859
7. Effect of Presidential Notification and scope 1859
8. Subsequent variation by President not permissible 1860
9. Creamy layer-demarcation only by Parliament 1861
10. Effect of migration 1861
11. Effect of conversion 1862
12. Marriage-effect of 1862
13. Acceptance is important 1863
14. Powers of the court 1863
15. In relation to that State 1864
16. Tribal community-meaning of 1864
17. Power to reserve constituency 1865
18. Scrutiny Committee 1865
19. Backward Class Commission-reference to 1865
20. Certificates – effect of fraud 1865
PART XVII
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE
CHAPTER I—LANGUAGE OF THE UNION
Art. 343. Official language of the Union 1867
1. Introduction 1867
Art. 344. Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language 1869
1. Scope 1870
CHAPTER II—REGIONAL LANGUAGE
Art. 345. Official language or languages of a State 1872
1. Adoption of one or more language-effect 1872
Art. 346. Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union 1872
Art. 347. Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State 1873
CHAPTER III—LANGUAGE OF THE SUPREME COURT, HIGH COURTS, ETC.
Art. 348. Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc. 1874
1. Legislative history 1875
2. Supreme Court–English mandatory 1875
3. High Courts–Judgements in English 1876
4. Election petition in Hindi–permissibility 1877
Art. 349. Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language. 1878
CHAPTER IV—SPECIAL DIRECTIVES
Art. 350. Language to be used in representations for redress of griev-ances 1879
1. Any office or authority 1879
2. Language used in the Union or State–meaning of 1879
Art. 350A. Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage 1879
1. Legislative History 1880
2. Mother tongue–importance 1880
3. Minority rights 1880
Art. 350B. Special office for linguistic minorities 1881
Art. 351. Directive for development of the Hindi language 1881
1. Hindi language–importance of 1881
2. “Primarily on Sanskrit”–import of 1882
3. Anti-Hindi agitation-pension not proper 1882
4. Hindi Thesis–not acceptable 1883
PART XVIII
EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
General Notes 1885
Art. 352. Proclamation of Emergency 1886
1. Legislative history 1889
2. President’s satisfaction 1890
3.
Art. 352 and judicial review 1891
4. Consequences of proclamation of emergency 1891
5. Publication of proclamation of Emergency 1892
6. Interpretation of emergency legislation 1892
7. Differences between Articles 352, 355 and 356 1892
8. Central Act-not colourable legislation 1893
Art. 353. Effect of Proclamation of Emergency 1893
Art. 354. Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation 1894
Art. 355. Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance 1894
1. Aggression–meaning of 1894
2. Internal disturbance–meaning 1895
3. Government–duty of 1895
Art. 356. Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States 1896
1. Legislative history 1898
2. Power not absolute 1899
3. Controversial article 1900
4. S.R. Bommai’s Case 1900
5. Power not for political gain 1902
6. Effect of invoking Art 356 1902
7. Judicial review 1903
8. Test for validity 1903
9. Satisfaction–meaning of 1904
10. Parliament’s approval and judicial review 1904
11. “Cannot” meaning of 1905
12. Preamble and Art 356 1906
13. Articles 174 and 356 1906
14. Governor’s obligations 1906
15. Governor–pivotal role: 1907
16. Effect of Act passed during Proclamation 1907
17. Publication in Gazette not necessary 1908
Art. 357. Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued un-der article 356 1908
1. Legislative history 1909
2. Nature and scope of proclamation 1909
3. Effect of Saving Clause in Article 357(2) 1910
Art. 358. Suspension of provision of article 19 during emergencies 1910
1. Suspension of Article 19 1911
2. Comparison between Articles 358 & 359 1911
3. Unconstitutional executive action 1912
Art. 359. Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies 1912
1. Legislative history 1914
2. “Statement of Objects and Reasons” 1914
3. Shivkant Shukla’s case 1915
4. Decisions prior to Shukla’s case 1917
5. Suspension of Fundamental Rights 1918
6. Suspension of fundamental rights and suspension of their enforcement 1918
7. Jurisdiction of courts under Articles 32 and 226 1919
8. Period of emergency–not justiciable 1920
9. Whether Presidential Order has to comply with Article 14 1920
10. Delegation of power 1921 Article 359(1) vis-a-vis Article 77(2) 1921
11. Any Court 1921
12. Power is constitutional 1921
13. Proclamation–effect on interim orders 1921
Art. 359A. [Repealed] 1922
1. Legislative history 1922
Art. 360. Provisions as to financial emergency 1923
1. Legislative history 1924
PART XIX
MISCELLANEOUS
Art. 361. Protection of President and Governors 1927
Art. 361A. Protection of publication of proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures 1929
1. Legislative history 1929
2. Historical background 1929
3. Analogous English Law 1930
4. Scope of Article 361A 1931
5. Expunged remarks 1931
6. “Any proceedings” of either House–meaning of 1931
7. Relative scope of Articles 105(2), 194(2) and 361A 1932
8. Freedom of press and Indian Penal Code 1932
Art. 361-B. Disqualification for appointment on remunerative political post 1933
Art. 362. [Repealed] 1933
1. Legislative history 1934
2. “Rights and privileges of rulers of Indian States 1934
3. Privy Purse Case–background 1934
Art. 363. Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising out of certain treaties, agreements, etc 1936
1. Restriction in interference by courts 1937
2. Jurisdiction of courts when barred 1938
3. Article 363–non-applicability 1939
4. Period of dispute–relevancy in Article 363 1939
5. Cases transferred from Federal Court–applicability of Article 363 1940
6. “Party to a covenant”–meaning of 1940
7. “Provisions of this Constitution relating to”–meaning of 1940
Art. 363A. Recognition granted to Rulers of Indian States to cease and privy purses to be abolished 1940
1. Objects and reasons for the 26th Amendment 1941
2. Constitutionality of 26th Amendment—upheld 1941
Art. 364. Special provisions as to major ports and aerodromes 1942
Art. 365. Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to, directions given by the Union 1942
1. Executive power of the Union–Scope of 1943
Art. 366. Definitions 1943
1. Scope of Article 366 1948
2. Definitions-Clause (1)–Agricultural income 1948
3. Enactments relating to income-tax–meaning of 1949
4. “Agriculture” and “agricultural purpose”–meaning of 1949
5. Clause (2) “Anglo Indian”–meaning 1949
6. “Parent”–meaning of 1950
7. Clause (4A) “Central law” 1950
8. History of and Rationale for the Amendments 1950
9. Clause (6)–“Corporation tax” meaning 1950
10. Clause 6(c) 1950
11. Clause (8)–debt 1951
12. Debt v. Loan 1951
13. Article 366(10)–“Existing law”–Scope 1952
14. Notification, Rules–whether existing law 1952
15. “Existing law” and “Law in force” 1952
16. Still born law–position of 1953
17. Rulers–exercise of power by 1953
18. Clause (12) “Goods” 1953
19. Goods andactionable claims 1953
20. Lottery tickets are not goods 1954
21. Clause (14)–“High Court” 1955
22. Clause (17)–“Pension” 1955
23. Clause (18)–“Proclamation of Emergency” 1955
24. Clause (19)–“Public Notification” 1956
25. Clause (20) “Railway”–Legislative History 1956
26. Tramways–distinguished 1956
27. Application of Railway Act 1956
28. Railway–features of 1957
29. Clause (21)–“Rajpramukh” 1957
30. Clause (22)–“Ruler” 1957
31. Definition under Article 363(2) (b)–distinguished 1957
32. Clause (24)–“Scheduled Castes” 1958
33. Clause (26-A) “State law” 1958
34. Clause (28)–“Taxation/tax-meaning of” 1958
35. Impost–Meaning of 1959
36. Clause (29)–tax on income 1959
37. Clause (29A)–Legislative history 1960
38. Statement of objects and reasons 1960
39. Reference to Law Commission 1961
40. Analogous developments in Australia 1962
41. Object of new definition 1963
42. Gannon Dunkerley and the 46th amendment 1963
43. Impact of Entry 54 List II and Article 286 1964
44. Composite contracts – levy of sales tax 1965
45. Differential classification for taxation 1966
46. “Right to use goods”–scope of 1966
47. Value of goods in works contract–determination of 1967
48. Telephone service not goods 1968
49. SIM card – dutiability 1968
50. Sale and works contract–tests 1969
51. Alternative method for taxation–whether permissible 1969
52. Non-maintenance of accounts by the contractor 1969
53. Provisions of Central Sales Tax Act (CST)–applicability of 1970
54. Fixing of situs 1970
55. Levy and Measure of Tax 1970
56. Uniform rate for goods is permissible 1971
57. Clause (30)–“Union Territory”–meaning of 1971
Art. 367. Interpretation 1971
1. General Clauses Act–applicabi-lity 1973
2. Amendments in General Clauses Act 1973
3. Law includes ordinance–Clause (2) 1973
4. Foreign States & commonwealth countries–Clause (3) 1974
5. Foreign State and Foreign Power 1974
6. Citizen of “foreign state”–position of 1975
7. Protectorate–whether a foreign state 1975
8. Interpretation of the Constitution 1975
9. General principles 1975
10. Constitutional & statutory interpretation 1978
11. Object oriented approach 1978
12. Two constructions possible-duty of Court 1979
13. Broad and liberal construction necessary 1980
14. Literal Interpretation-Mischief Rule 1980
15. Qualifying words/adjectives-use of 1980
16. Mandatory or directory-tests to determine 1980
17. Doctrine of Colourable Legislation 1981
18. Nature of Enquiry 1982
19. Motives are irrelevant 1983
20. Doctrine of pith and substance 1983
21. Pith and substance and fundamental rights 1984
22. Pith and substance and legislative entries 1985
23. Doctrine of harmonious construction 1986
24. Harmonious Construction–fundamental rights and directive principles 1988
25. Doctrine of severability 1988
26. Doctrine of occupied field 1990
27. Government of India Act, 1935 1991
28. Government of India Act, 1935–no residuary entry 1991
29. Constituent Assembly and Government of India Act, 1935 1991
30. American and other foreign decisions–applicability 1991
31. Provisions of other constitutions 1993
32. Doctrine of reading down 1993
33. Doctrine of Stare Decisis 1994
34. Doctrine of Prospective Overruling 1994
35. Doctrine of eclipse 1996
36. Speeches made in Parliament Constituent Assembly 1996
37. Reports of Committees and Commissions 1997
38. Election manifesto-not relevant 1997
39. Earlier Supreme Court decisions–binding precedents 1997
40. Statement of Objects and Reasons 1998
41. Reference to Common Law necessary 1998
42. Generalia specialibus non derogant 1998
43. General and special laws 1999
44. Common law-whether part of law of India 1999
45. Importance of legislative practice 2000
46. Scope of Article 366 and 367 2000
47. Constitutional questions–duty of court 2000
48. Constitutional validity–relevance of affidavits 2001
49. Constitutional questions and political consequences 2002
50. Legislative Entries–interpretation of 2002
51. Full effect to clear, unambiguous expression 2002
52. Directive principles and Fundamental Rights 2003
53. Judicial activism 2003
54. Emotionalism or sentimentalism to be avoided 2003
55. Legal fictions-rules of interpretation 2003
56. Constitution-an attempt to harmonise various interests 2004
57. Motive–not relevant 2004
58. Expectation of founding fathers and constitutionalists 2004
59. Rag–bag legislation 2005
60. Subject to–meaning 2005
61. Rule of contemporanea exposition 2005
62. Wednesbury Principle 2005
63. Doctrine of proportionality 2007
64. Doctrine of Occupied Field 2010
65. Doctrine of legitimate expectation 2012
PART XX
AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION
Art. 368. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor 2015
1. Legislative history 2016
2. The 24th Amendment 2017
3. The 42nd amendment 2017
4. Constituent Assembly Debates 2017
5. Three categories of amendments 2017
6. Non-compliance of procedure–effect 2018
7. Amendment and other relevant provisions 2018
8. Amending power and fundamental rights 2019
9. Validity of the 44th Amendment Act upheld 2020
10. Doctrine of prospective overruling 2021
11. Golaknath and subsequent amendments 2021
12. Kesavananda Bharati’s case 2021
13. Basic structure–meaning of 2022
14. Basic structure–illustrative examples 2024
15. Indira Gandhi election case 2027
16. Minerva Mills case 2027
17. Nagaraj’s case 2027
18. Amending power limited 2028
19. Basic structure and ordinary legislations 2028
20. Validity of earlier amendments 2029
21. Power to amend State laws 2030
22. Amendment to State Acts not permissible 2030
23. Judicial review of constitutional amendments 2030
24. Article 368 and the Tenth Schedule 2031
25. Amending power and subsequent delegation 2031
26. Amending power-substantive and procedural limitations 2031
27. Amending power–doctrine of severability 2032
28. Amending power and Articles 1 to 4 2032
29. Subsequent constitutional amendments–effect of 2032
30. Power to amend State laws 2033
31. Amendment passed hurriedly–still valid 2033
32. Substitution and supersession–difference between 2033
PART XXI
TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Art. 369. Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List 2035
Art. 370. Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir 2036
1. Legislative history 2037
2. Historical background 2038
3. Article 370(1)(c) and (d) : President can specify exceptions/ modifications 2039
4. Illustrative cases of modification 2040
5. Governor to succeed Sadar-I Riyasat 2041
6. Validity of Order passed by President 2041
7. Article 368 and Article 370 are complementary 2041
8. Provisions of Article 370 and its effect 2041
Art. 371. Special provisions with respect to the States of [***] Ma-harashtra and Gujarat 2042
1. Legislative history 2042
2. Technical education–meaning 2043
Art. 371A. Special provisions with respect to the State of Nagaland 2043
Art. 371B. Special provisions with respect to the State of Assam 2047
Art. 371C. Special provisions with respect to the State of Manipur 2048
Art. 371D. Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh 2048
1. Legislative history/object and scope 2052
2. The primary purpose of enacting Article 371-D, was two–fold 2053
3. Article 371D–validity of reservation 2053
4. Article 371D-no control over subordinate judiciary 2054
5. No power to modify/annul quasi-judicial orders 2054
6. Clause (10)–non–obstante clause–effect of 2055
Art. 371E. Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh 2055
Art. 371F. Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim 2055
1. Legislative history and scope 2058
2. Article 2 and Article 371-F to be read harmoniously 2060
3. Article 371–F–effect of Articles 2 and 368 2061
4. Reservation–special provision 2061
Art. 371G. Special provisions with respect to the State of Mizoram 2062
Art. 371H. Special provisions with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh 2062
Art. 371-I. Special provisions with respect to the State of Goa 2063
Art. 372. Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation 2063
1. Adoption of laws 2065
2. Pre-constitutional stage 2065
3. Existing law and law in force 2066
4. Privy Council decisions–law in force 2066
5. Scope-protection of pre-existing law 2067
6. Adoption of common law of England 2068
7. Laws made by Indian Rulers–enforceability 2069
8. Article 372 is subject to Article 277 2070
9. Temporary Acts 2071
10. Adaptations or modifications of law by President 2071
11. Explanation III applies to all temporary enactments 2072
12. Illustrative instances 2072
Art. 372-A.Power of the President to adapt laws 2073
Art. 373. Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases 2073
Art. 374. Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His majesty in Council 2074
Art. 375. Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution 2075
Art. 376. Provisions as to Judges of High Courts 2075
Art. 377. Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 2076
Art. 378. Provisions as to Public Service Commissions 2076
Art. 378A Special provisions as to duration of Andhra Pradesh Legisla-tive Assembly 2076
Art. 379-391 [Repealed] 2077
1. Legislative History 2077
2. “379. Provisions as to provisional Parliament and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker thereof 2077
3. 380. Provision as to President 2078
4. 381. Council of Ministers of the President 2079
5. 382. Provisions as to provisional Legislatures for State in Part A of the First Schedule. 2079
6. 383. Provisions as to Governors of Provinces 2080
7. 384. Council of Ministers of Governors 2080
8. 385. Provisions as to provisional Legislatures in States in Part B of the First Schedule 2080
9. 386. Council of Ministers for States in Part B of the First Schedule 2080
10. 387. Special provision as to determination of population for the purposes of certain elections 2081
11. 388. Provisions as to the filling of casual vacancies in the provi-sional Parliament and Provisional Legislatures of the States 2081
12. 389. Provisions as to Bills pending in the Dominion Legislature and in the Legislatures of Provinces and Indian States 2082
13. 390. Moneys received or raised or expenditure incurred between the commencement of the Constitution and the 31st day of March, 1950 2082
14. 391. Power of the President to amend the First and Fourth Schedule in certain contingencies 2083
Art. 392. Power of the President to remove difficulties 2083
PART XXII
SHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT, AUTHORITATIVE TEXT IN HINDI AND REPEALS
Art. 393. Short title 2085
Art. 394. Commencement 2085
Art. 394A Authoritative text in the Hindi language 2085
Art. 395. Repeals 2086
SCHEDULES
SCHEDULE PAGE
FIRST SCHEDULE—
I. The States. 2087
II. The Union territories. 2091
SECOND SCHEDULE—
Part A — Provisions as to the President and the Governors of States. 2093
Part B — [Repealed.] 2093
Part C— Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State. 2093
Part D — Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts. 2094
Part E — Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India. 2096
THIRD SCHEDULE—Forms of Oaths or Affirmations. 2097
1. Legislative history 2099
2. Taking of oaths – general characters 2100
3. Purpose of Oath 2100
4. Breach of oath – effect of 2100
5. Oath under Form III-A – mandatory 2101
7. Presidential election – requirement as to oaths 2101
8. Essential requirements of Form VII-A 2101
9, Form VII-A – “having been nominated” – effect of 2101
10. Oath made by High Court Judge – effect 2102
11. Misprint in translation of form of oath – effect of 2102
12. Oath for Prime Minister – conventional practice 2102
13. Oath administered as Deputy Prime Minister –whether unconstitutional 2102
FOURTH SCHEDULE—Allocation of seats in the Council of States. 2103
FIFTH SCHEDULE—Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes— 2105
Part A—General. 2105
Part B—Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Sched-uled Tribes. 2105
Part C—Scheduled Areas. 2106
Part D—Amendment of the Schedule. 2107
1. Legislative History 2107
2. Scope of Governor’s power 2108
3. Governor’s power – when can be exercised 2109
4. Rationale for para 2 2109
5. “Administration and Control” – meaning of 2109
6. Amendment Act – constitutionality upheld 2110
7. Guidelines for classification as scheduled area 2110
8. “Land” in Para 5(1)(a) –meaning of 2110
9. Governor’s orders contravening fundamental rights – position of 2110
10. Scope of amending power 2111
11. Para 7(2) – scope and effect 2111
12. Amendment under Para 7 – effect of Article 13(2) 2112
SIXTH SCHEDULE—Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. 2113
1. Rationale behind the Schedule 2132
2. Scheme of the Schedule 2133
3. Sixth Schedule and other provisions 2133
4. Extent of State’s executive power 2133
5. Scope and effect of exercise of powers of Para 1(3) 2133
6. Appointment of Chiefs and Headmen 2134
7. Nature of Para 3(1) 2134
8. Powers of the District Council 2134
9. Legislative capacity of District Council – scope of 2135
10. State Legislature – capacity to make laws 2135
11. “Allotment”, “Setting apart of land” – does not include transfer 2135
12. Powers to appoint and remove administrative personnel 2135
13. Protection of Art 311 not available 2136
14. Trial of Suits – Para 4 2136
15. Protection from exploitation – Para 10 – Validity of regulations 2136
16. Consultation with Council of Ministers – Para 14(2) 2137
17. Nature of power under Para 19(1)(b) 2137
18. “Until a District Council is so constituted” – import of 2137
19. Exercise of legislative power by Governor – time limit 2138
20. Scope of amending power 2138
21. Amendment – meaning of 2138
22. Para 20BB – State of Mizoram 2138
SEVENTH SCHEDULE—General Notes 2139
List I.—Union List. 2146
List II.—State List. 2183
List III.—Concurrent List. 2217
EIGHTH SCHEDULE—Languages. 2236
1. Inclusion of a language – criterion for 2236
2. Writ petition – maintainability of 2236
3. Sanskrit – importance of 2237
NINTH SCHEDULE—Validation of certain Acts and Regulations. 2238
TENTH SCHEDULE—Provisions as to disqualification on ground of defec-tion. 2250
ELEVENTH SCHEDULE—Powers, authority and responsibilities of Pancha-yats. 2264
TWELFTH SCHEDULE—Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc. 2266

Volume 3
Arrangement of Appendices
Arrangement of Appendices
CONSTITUTIONAL DOCUMENTS
(1800-2006)
APPENDICES
PART I
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
APPENDIX PAGE
APPENDIX 1 THE SIXTH SCHEDULE TO THE CONSTITUTION (AMENDMENT) ACT, 1995 [IN ITS APPLICATION TO THE STATE OF ASSAM] 2273
APPENDIX 2 THE CONSTITUTION (APPLICATION TO JAMMU AND KASHMIR) ORDER, 1954. 2275
APPENDIX 3 RE-STATEMENT, WITH REFERENCE TO THE PRESENT TEXT OF THE CONSTITUTION, OF THE EXCEPTIONS AND MODIFICATIONS SUBJECT TO WHICH THE CONSTITUTION APPLIES TO THE STATE OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR 2285
APPENDIX 4 CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT (1950-2006) (FIRST AMENDMENT ACT TO NINETY FOURTH AMENDMENT ACT) 2296
APPENDIX 5 VENKATACHALIAH COMMITTEE SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS OF NATIONAL COM-MISSION TO REVIEW THE WORKING OF THE CONSTITUTION 2352
APPENDIX 5A EDUCATION TRIOLOGY – PAI, ISLAMIC AND INAMDAR – FROM CERTAINTY TO CHAOS” 2386
PART II
HIGH COURT RULES
APPENDIX 6 RULES FRAMED BY VARIOUS HIGH COURTS UNDER ARTICLES 226 AND 227 2397
1. ALLAHABAD HIGH COURT RULES FOR ARTICLE 226 OF THE CONSTITUTION 2401
2. ANDHRA PRADESH HIGH COURT RULES 2407
3. BOMBAY HIGH COURT RULES—BOMBAY (ORIGINAL SIDE) RULES, 1980 2422
4. CALCUTTA HIGH COURT RULES—RULES OF THE HIGH COURT AT CALCUTTA RELATING TO APPLICATIONS UNDER ARTICLE 226 OF THE CONSTITUTION 2436
5. DELHI HIGH COURT RULES 2446
6. GAUHATI HIGH COURT RULES 2447
7. GUJARAT HIGH COURT RULES 2450
8. JAMMU & KASHMIR HIGH COURT RULES 2454
9. JHARKHAND HIGH COURT RULES 2456
10. KARNATAKA HIGH COURT RULES 2457
11. KERALA HIGH COURT RULES 2467
12. MADHYA PRADESH HIGH COURT RULES 2471
13. MADRAS HIGH COURT RULES 2481
14. ORISSA HIGH COURT RULES 2483
15. PATNA HIGH COURT RULES 2487
16. PUNJAB & HARYANA HIGH COURT RULES 2489
17. RAJASTHAN HIGH COURT RULES 2495
PART III
CONSTITUTIONAL DOCUMENTS
APPENDIX 7 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1800 2499
APPENDIX 8 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1833 2502
APPENDIX 9 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1853 2512
APPENDIX 10 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1854 2515
APPENDIX 11 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1858 2516
APPENDIX 12 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1861 2527
APPENDIX 13 INDIAN HIGH COURTS ACT, 1865 2537
APPENDIX 14 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1865 2538
APPENDIX 15 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1869 2539
APPENDIX 16 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1869 2540
APPENDIX 17 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1870 2541
APPENDIX 18 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1871 2543
APPENDIX 19 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1874 2544
APPENDIX 20 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1892 2545
APPENDIX 21 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1904 2547
APPENDIX 22 COUNCILS OF INDIA ACT, 1907 2548
APPENDIX 23 INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1909 2549
APPENDIX 24 INDIAN HIGH COURTS ACT, 1911 2551
APPENDIX 25 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1912 2552
APPENDIX 26 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1915-1919 2554
APPENDIX 27 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 2610
APPENDIX 28 INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947 2806
APPENDIX 29 INDIA (PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTIONAL) OR-DER, 1947 2820
APPENDIX 30 INDIA (CONSEQUENTIAL PROVISION) ACT, 1949 2837
PART IV
FOREIGN CONSTITUTIONS
APPENDIX 31 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 2841
APPENDIX 32 THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT, 1998 (UK) 2856
APPENDIX 33 THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS 2874
APPENDIX 34 CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA, 1996 2889
APPENDIX 35 THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTITUTION 2974
APPENDIX 36 THE CANADIAN CONSTITUTION ACTS, 1867 TO 1982 2991
APPENDIX 37 UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, 1948 0 3046
APPENDIX 38 INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITI-CAL RIGHTS, 1966 3050
APPENDIX 39 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMI-NATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMI-NATION, 1966 3061
PART V
OTHER INDIAN LEGISLATIONS
APPENDIX 40 THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR MINORITIES ACT, 1992 3067
APPENDIX 41 THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN ACT, 1990 3071
APPENDIX 42 THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR BACKWARD CLASSES ACT, 1993 3075
APPENDIX 43 THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR SAFAI KARAM-CHARIS ACT, 1993 3079
APPENDIX 44 THE COMMISSION FOR PROTECTION OF CHILD RIGHTS ACT, 2005 3082
APPENDIX 45 THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS ACT, 1993 3090
APPENDIX 46 THE RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT, 2005 3100
APPENDIX 47 RIGHT TO INFORMATION (REGULATION OF FEE AND COST) RULES, 2005 3117