D D Basu Human Rights in Constitutional Law

Contents
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTORY
PAGE
Scope of the present Volume 1
Human Rights: meaning of 1
U.S.A. 2
Human Rights and Fundamental Rights 2
U.K. 3
Canada 3
U.S.S.R. 4
New Zealand 5
South Africa 5
CHAPTER 2
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
What are Human Rights ? 8
The quest for a higher law and Natural Rights 8
Natural rights 8
The genesis of Human Rights 8
U.N. Charter 8
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 9
International Covenants of 1966 9
International Covenants 9
European Convention 10
American Convention on Human Rights, 1969 10
Developments within the Commonwealth 11
The Singapore Declaration, 1971 11
The Lusaka Declaration, 1979 11
Human Rights in International Law 11
Importation of the concept of Human Rights into the realm of International Law and World Order 11
The League of Nations 12
Birth of the U.N. adds new impetus 12
European Convention 12
Human Rights under National Constitutions 13
Development of Human Rights in the U.K. 13
Human Rights Act, 1998 & 2000 [U.K.] 14
The Constitutional Protection and Human Rights 14
Higher law embodied in a written Constitution 15
France 15
India 16
Canada 17
Prior to 1960 17
Bill of Rights, 1960 17
Canadian Human Rights Act, 1977 19
Charter of Rights, 1982 19
Nigeria 20
Constitution Order of 1960 20
Constitution of 1979 20
Malaysia 21
Jamaica 21
Mauritius 21
Kenya 21
Vietnam 21
Value of International Covenants in Municipal Courts 21
U.K. 22
U.S.A. 23
Federal Republic of Germany 24
Canada 24
Eire 25
India 26
Influence of International Charters on Human Rights in interpreting written Constitutions 27
India 27
India 29
Commonwealth 30
Bermuda 30
Jamaica 31
Canada 31
India 32
Recent Developments in Constitutional Law on Human Rights 32
‘Public interest litigation’ 32
U.K. 33
U.S.A. 33
India 33
New Zealand 35
Canada 35
‘State action’ 35
U.S.A. 35
India 36
Expanding meaning of ‘state’ in stages 37
Sri Lanka 39
Canada 39
Expansion of remedies for infringement of Fundamental Rights 39
India 39
Issuing positive directions 40
Awarding compensation in writ proceeding 41
Enforcing non-justiciable rights by issuing directions 41
Compensation—Newly emerging judicial trends 43
Social Justice—a new factor in the realm of enforceable human rights 49
Judicial review of administrative action 50
India 51
Canada 52
New Zealand, Hong Kong, Trinidad & Tobago 52
Australia 52
CHAPTER 3
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Natural Rights, Human Rights, Fundamental Rights 54
Fundamental rights: an evolution of ‘natural rights’. 54
Natural rights: an offshoot of natural law. 54
Natural rights superior to and inviolable by human authority. 54
Natural rights inalienable. 54
From Natural Rights to Fundamental Rights 55
U.K. 55
Magna Carta (1215). 55
Petition of Right (1628). 55
Bill of Rights (1689). 55
Act of Settlement (1701). 55
Dissenters and Levellers (1637-1654). 55
Advocates of Social Contract. 56
John Locke (1690). 56
Rousseau (1762). 56
Blackstone (1765). 56
Mayflower Compact (1620). 57
Virginia Bill of Rights (1776). 57
American Declaration of Independence (1776). 57
French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1791). 58
Thomas Paine (1791-92). 58
The Bill of Rights in the American Constitution (1789). 58
Natural rights transformed into fundamental rights operating as a constitu-tional limitation. 59
U.S.A. 59
Adoption of the First Ten Amendments (1791) as the ‘Bill of Rights’. 59
Fundamental Rights as a limitation on Power. 60
Federal Bill of Rights judicially extended to States. 60
Post-War Constitutions. 60
India . 60
Commonwealth countries 61
Furtherance of demand for fundamental rights by the United Nations. 62
Human Rights and Fundamental Rights 63
Heritage of Fundamental Rights from Natural Rights. 63
Effects of incorporating human rights in a written Constitution. 63
Canada 63
U.S.S.R., China 64
India 64
China 64
U.S.S.R. 65
Nature of Fundamental Rights 65
U.K. 67
Fundamental Rights whether enforceable, against private persons 67
India 68
1. Principles laid down in Part IV are fundamental in the governance of the country 68
2. Directive Principles—Not stand elevated to inalienable fundamental human rights—justiciable by themselves 69
Fundamental Rights—who can enforce. 70
Whether ‘illegitimate child’ is a person 71
International Covenant. 71
U.S.A. 71
India 72
Whether an alien is entitled to human rights 72
International Covenant. 72
European Convention. 73
Deportation of aliens. 73
U.S.A. 73
U.K. 75
India 75
Whether a Corporation is entitled to Funda¬mental Rights 76
An artificial person can claim some Fundamental Rights. 77
Antigua 77
U.S.A. 77
Belize 77
Mauritius 78
Canada 78
Nigeria 79
India 79
Whether an unborn child is a ‘person’ entitled to human rights 81
European Convention Art. 2(l). 81
Austria 81
Norway 81
U.S.A. 81
Federal Republic of Germany 82
India 83
I.P.C. 83
Termination of unwanted pregnancy caused by rape 84
Hindu Succession Act. 85
AGAINST WHOM AVAILABLE
Fundamental Rights: Whether enforceable against Private Persons 85
Canada 86
S. 32 86
Eire 87
Exceptions 87
‘State Action’. 87
The doctrine of ‘State action’ 87
Tests to determine whether a non-governmental body is an instrumentality of the State 87
U.S.A. 88
India 88
U.S.A. 89
India 89
U.S.A. 93
CHAPTER 4

ENUMERATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
The Universal Declaration 95
Justiciable and Non-justiciable Human Rights. 96
Universal Declaration. 96
Social and Economic Rights. 96
Civil and Political Rights. 96
Ideological Antithesis between Civil and Social Rights. 96
Italy 97
The International Covenants of 1966 97
Cyprus 97
India 98
Directive Principles are justiciable by themselves 100
Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 100
India 101
Canada 101
Enumeration of Human Rights in the International Charters and Covenants. 102
Enumeration of Fundamental Rights 106
Extent of Application and Classification of Fundamental Rights in India. 107
Some rights are available to citizens only; others extend to all persons. 107
Contrary to American precedents, some rights in Part III of the Indian Con-stitution relate to private action 107
Unenumerated Individual Rights or ‘Natural Rights’ under Written Constitution 111
U.S.A. 111
India 112
CHAPTER 5
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AS A LIMITATION
Effect of entrenching human rights in a written Constitution as Fundamental Rights 119
The need for Fundamental Rights 120
U.K. 120
U.S.A. 120
India 122
Pre-Independence urge for Fundamental Rights. 122
Constitution for free India. 123
How individual rights are secured under different systems 124
U.K. 124
U.S.A. 126
Eire. 128
Japan 129
West Germany 130
Canada 130
Canada Act, 1982 131
Nigeria 132
Trinidad and Tobago 132
Mauritius 133
Grenada 133
Malaysia 133
Jamaica 133
Kenya . 133
Gambia 134
Cyprus 134
India 134
Article 12 134
Article 32 134
Article 13(2). 134
Article 245(1). 135
Article 372(1) 135
Consequences of the doctrine of limitation 136
I. Fundamental Rights and Judicial Review 136
Constitutions having Bill of Right without Judicial Review. 136
France . 137
Switzerland . 137
Foundations of the system of Judicial Review of legislation. 138
II. Court’s duty to enforce Fundamental Rights 140
Doctrine of parens patriae 140
U.S.A. 140
Gradual and stealthy encroachments. 141
India. 142
To move High Court before Supreme Court. 144
Res judicata 145
Laches. 146
III. Can a Fundamental Right be waived? 149
U.S.A. 149
Canada 150
India 150
AS A LIMITATION AGAINST THE LEGISLATURE
Effects of an unconstitutional statute 155
U.S.A. & India 156
U.S.A., India, Eire, Commonwealth. 157
Consequences of the presumption. 157
Limits of the presumption. 158
In the application of guarantee of equal protection. 159
In the application of the guarantee of ‘due process’ or reasonableness of restrictions. 161
U.S.A. 161
India 161
Presumption as to existence of facts to sustain constitutionality. 161
Rule of favourable construction. 162
U.S.A. 162
India 162
Wilkinson’s Rules for administration of Civil Justice 163
Onus of rebutting presumption. 163
India 163
Canada 164
Law of social or economic regulation. 164
U.S.A. 165
‘Clear and present danger’ test. 165
Taxation of media of freedom of speech or press. 165
U.S.A. 165
India 165
Commonwealth. 166
U.S.A. 166
Presumption rebutted. 167
Test of unconstitutionality 167
Impact of Impugned law on fundamental right. 167
India 167
The impact must be direct. 168
What cannot be done directly, cannot be done indirectly. 168
Fraud on the Constitution. 168
Limits of Judicial Review 169
U.S.A., India 169
Self-imposed limits. 170
I. The doctrine of adversary litigation 170
A Court can only decide Particular cases brought before it. 170
U.S.A. 171
India 171
Advisory jurisdiction. 171
Public interest litigation. 172
II. The controversy must be real 173
U.S.A. 173
India 174
III. The question must be substantial 177
U.S.A. 177
India 177
Art. 132(1). 177
Art. 228. 179
IV. The doctrine of ‘last resort’ 179
U.S.A. 179
India 179
Avoidance of unconstitutionality by construction of impugned statute. 180
Where two alternative constructions possible 181
Kedar Nath v. State of Bihar. 181
Limits of the doctrine of narrower construction. 181
The Court cannot rewrite the impugned statute to save it from uncon-stitu¬tionality . 182
Kishan Chand v. State of Rajasthan 183
Vrajlal v. State of M.P. 184
Narrowing down a wide provision. 185
Affecting fundamental right. 185
Romesh Thappar’s case. 186
Chintaman Rao’s case. 186
Ram Manohar’s case. 186
Kameshwar Prasad’s case. 187
V. The Court will not go beyond what is necessary for the disposal of the particular case. 189
India 190
Suraj Mall v. Viswanatha 190
Meenakshi Mills v. Viswanatha 190
VI. The litigant must have a ‘standing’ 192
U.S.A. 192
Locus standi 192
Standing as a tax-payer. 193
India 194
(I) The right must belong to the Petitioner 194
(II) Such right must be affected by the impugned law 196
(III) The injury must be imminent 196
(IV) The injury must be to the plaintiff individually 197
U.S.A. 197
India 199
Commonwealth. 200
Nigeria 201
Kiribati . 201
(V) Locus standi of a corporation and its shareholders 202
U.S.A. 202
India 202
Commonwealth 204
Antigua 204
Mauritius 204
St. Christopher & Nevis. 205
Nigeria 205
Canada 205
(VI) The exception of public interest litigation 205
Canada 205
(VII) The pleading must be adequate 206
U.S.A. 206
India 207
(VIII) The challenge of unconstitutionality must be specific 208
U.S.A. 208
India 208
U.S.A. 209
India 210
(IX) The question must be raised at the proper stage 210
U.S.A. 210
India 210
(X) The question must be ‘justiciable’ 212
U.S.A. 212
Art. I, S. 4(1). 212
India 214
Directives in Part IV. 214
Directives contained in other Parts of the Constitution. 215
Arts. 31A; 31B; 31C. 216
(XI) Laws relating to election 216
U.S.A. 216
India 216
Arts. 81(2), 329(a). 216
Eire. 217
Japan 217
West Germany. 218
(XII) Exclusion of Judicial Review 218
India 219
Mauritius 219
Nigeria 219
Canada 220
U.S.A. 220
U.S.A. 221
Eire. 221
Art. 28(3)(c). 221
Art. 34(3)(c). 221
India 221
Art. 31A. 222
Art. 31B. 222
Art. 31C. 222
Art. 33. 224
Art. 34. 224
Emergency provisions: Art. 352. 225
Art. 358. 225
Art. 359. 225
(XIII) Doctrine of stare decisis 226
U.K. 226
U.S.A. 226
Commonwealth 227
Canada 227
India 227
(XIV) Doctrine of partial invalidity and Severability or Separability 229
U.S.A. 229
Eire 232
Canada 232
Prior to 1982 232
After 1982 233
India 233
Art. 13(2). 233
Commonwealth. 238
(XV) Court not to inquire into motive of the Legislature 239
Overall duty to uphold fundamental rights, by ‘purposive’ interpretation if possible. 241
Modes of challenging unconstitution¬ality of a statute 242
U.S.A. 242
India 243
Jamaica 243
Cook Islands 244
Canada 244
India 244
Art. 32. 244
Art. 226. 244
Canada 245
U.S.A. 245
U.S.A. 245
Canada 246
India 246
Consequences of Unconstitutionality 247
The offending statute becomes void and inoperative from the moment of its enactment. 247
U.S.A. 247
West Germany . 247
India 247
Meaning of ‘absolutely void’ 248
Pre-1965 248
U.S.A. 248
Japan 248
Canada 249
India 249
I. A declaration of unconstitutionality operates as a judgment in rem. 249
II. Effects on administrative proceedings 253
Quashing administrative proceedings. 253
Refund of unconstitutional taxation. 254
Restoration of goods seized under unconstitutional statute. 254
Regulatory law. 254
Public employment. 254
U.S.A. 254
India 254
Restoration of due promotion or seniority in Government service. 255
Effects on a criminal proceeding 255
U.S.A. 256
India 256
Prospective Overruling 256
U.S.A. (after 1965). 256
Post-1965 doctrine in Linkletter’s case. 257
India 258
Whether the Legislature can override the declaration of unconstitutionality. 261
West Germany. 261
India 261
U.S.A. 261
India. 262
Validating statute. 263
India. 263
Australia. 263
India. 264
Hari Singh v. M.E.O. 264
Comment. 265
Comment. 265
How far constitutional amendment may validate a law declared to be uncons-titu¬tional. 269
India 269
Mahendra v. State of U.P. 270
Indira v. Rajnarain. 270
Enforcement of Fundamental Rights against subordinate legislation 273
U.S.A. 273
Canada 273
Trinidad 274
India 274
AS A LIMITATION AGAINST THE EXECUTIVE
The Executive organ. 274
Ultra vires and Unconstitutionality 275
U.K. 276
U.S.A., India 276
More appropriate to invoke Rule of ‘Fundamental law’ than Rule of ‘law’, in India. 277
Newly emerging Judicial trends 278
Family planning programme 278
Presumption of constitutionality 278
U.S.A. 278
Reference to decision of expert body. 278
India 278
Limits of the Presumption. 279
Where malice is alleged. 279
Vesting discretion in superior officials 279
Violation of fundamental right. 281
Application of doctrine of “full faith and credit” 281
Deference to Executive interpretation of the Constitution. 282
U.S.A. 282
Inconvenience of administration, an irrelevant consideration in judicial review. 282
India 283
U.K. 283
U.S.A. 285
Canada 285
International commitments, no consideration for up holding unconstitu-tional administrative act. 285
U.S.A. 285
Violation of fundamental rights cannot be justified by the plea of admini-strative inconvenience. 285
India 285
Apprehension of spate of litigation, an irrelevant consideration. 288
U.K. 288
Limits of Judicial review of executive acts 289
Non-justiciable issues 289
Political questions 289
U.S.A. 289
U.K. 289
Canada 290
Non-justiciable provisions under the Constitution. 291
India 291
Art. 74(2): Ministerial advice. 291
Art. 200. 292
Relation between the Head of the State and his Ministers 292
Papua New Guinea. 292
Rights of military personnel 293
Canada 293
India 293
Art. 33. 293
Exclusion of Judicial Review by statute 294
U.K. 294
Australia 294
Sri Lanka 294
U.K. 295
Liversidge v. Anderson. 295
Law depriving a person of life or liberty 295
U.K. 295
Commonwealth: Zimbabwe 296
Loss of employment 296
U.K. 296
Secy. of State v. Tameside. 297
Commonwealth: A.G. v. Reynolds. 297
India 298
Preventive Detention. 298
Policy decision. 300
India 300
Impact of Fundamental Rights on discre¬tionary power 300
U.S.A. 300
India 301
Art. 14. 301
Art 19. 303
Natural Justice 303
Art. 21. 303
RIGHT TO LIFE AND LIVELIHOOD—NEWLY EMER¬G¬ING JUDICIAL TRENDS 304
Legitimate expectation. 306
Scope of judicial review of executive act for infringement of Fundamental Rights 307
Contravention of Fundamental Rights. 307
Indirect violation. 307
Eire. 307
India 307
Ultra vires and mala fides 308
Ultra vires 308
Mala fides 308
When a constitutional ground. 308
When order constitutes indirect violation Fundamental Rights. 308
Fraud on the Constitution. 309
Balaji v. State of Mysore. 309
Directive Principles. 310
West Germany 310
India 311
Constitutional powers exercisable on subjective determination of Executive head. 311
Ordinance-making power: Arts. 123(1); 213(1). 311
Wadhwa v. State of Bihar. 312
Venkata v. State of A.P.,—a Critique 313
Power to declare emergency: Arts. 352, 356, 360. 314
Relaxed form of the doctrine of political question 315
Excess of Constitutional Authority 315
Pardoning power. 316
U.K. 316
U.S.A. 316
India 316
Interference with political rights. 318
U.S.A. 318
India 318
India 319
Application of particular Fundamental Rights to executive action 320
India 321
Art 14: Discrimination. 321
Contracts with Government. 322
Art. 29(2). 325
India 325
Right to carry trade or business : Freedoms & Restrictions : Newly emerging trends 325
Art. 19. 327
Canada 328
S. 2 of the Charter. 328
India 329
Art. 21. 329
Right to life—Newly emerging trends 330
Preventive Detention 331
India 331
Art. 22 331
Impact of ‘Due Process’ and natural justice on Fundamental Rights. 331
Due Process; Natural Justice; Fair hearing. 331
Nigeria 332
U.K. 332
Hong Kong . 332
India 333
Canada 333
India 333
Art. 30. 333
Directive Principles and Art. 14. 333
Limits to Judicial Review of Administrative Action 336
Right to education : Newly emerging judicial trends 337
AS A LIMITATION AGAINST THE JUDICIARY
Violation of Fundamental Rights by judicial proceedings and decisions. 338
Constitutional remedy expressly provided for infringement of Fundamental Rights by judicial proceedings. 338
West Germany. 338
Cyprus 338
Limitation against Judiciary deduced from general provisions. 339
U.S.A. 339
Omnibus provision, not excluding Judiciary: Fiji, Jamaica . 340
Papua New Guinea . 340
Courts not mentioned 340
Canada. 340
I. Guarantee of equal protection 341
Equal protection. 341
U.S.A. 341
II. Guarantee of ‘due process’ 341
Due process. 341
U.S.A. 341
III. Right to a fair hearing by an independent and impartial Court. 341
U.S.A. 341
Dominica. 342
Jamaica. 342
Fiji. 342
Trinidad and Tobago. 342
IV. Right to speedy trial or hearing within a reasonable time 342
I. Presumption of innocence 342
VI. Guarantee against unreasonable search and seizure 342
U.S.A. 342
Canada 343
VII. Immunity from self-incrimination 343
VIII. Guarantee against double jeopardy 343
U.S.A. 343
IX. Right to counsel for defence 343
U.S.A. 343
Canada 343
X. Guarantee against cruel and unusual punishment 343
U.S.A. 343
Jamaica 344
XI. Disproportionate punishment 344
U.S.A. 344
Cyprus 344
Cyprus. 344
India 344
Naresh v. State of Maharashtra: a critique. 344
A. Whether a fundamental right can be violated by a judicial decision 345
U.S.A. 345
India 345
Art. 14. 345
Art. 19(1)(a). 345
U.S.A. 346
Art. 20(3). 346
Art. 22(1). 347
Trinidad and Tobago. 347
B. Does a collateral proceeding lie to quash a judicial decision which violates a
fundamental right? 347
Guyana 348
Quasi-judicial authority. 348
Third Party. 349
U.S.A. 349
India 349
Habeas Corpus . 349
U.S.A. 349
India 350
Certiorari. 350
U.S.A. 350
India 351
Prohibition. 352
U.S.A. 352
Dominica 352
Jamaica 352
Canada 352
Trinidad & Tobago:(S. 14) 353
Limits of Judicial review of the Jud-ges transfer in select cases 353
India 353
Limits of Judicial review of inadequate court infra structure 354
CHAPTER 6
RESTRICTIONS UPON AND LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN
RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Need for limitations of Human Rights 356
Limitation and derogation 356
Limitations as distinguished from exceptions 357
Canada 358
India 358
Art. 19(2)-(6). 358
Arts. 31A-31C. 358
Limitations on the exercise of Fundamental Rights 359
Need for Limitations. 359
International Charters: Universal Declaration, International Covenant,
European Convention 359
Fundamental right and social control. 359
India 360
NEWLY EMERGING TRENDS
U.S.A. 361
Doctrine or Police Power. 361
Canada 362
India 363
Trinidad & Tobago 366
Eire. 366
Art. 40.6.1. 366
India 367
Art. 30(1). 367
Art. 19(1)(c). 367
Lawyer’s Strike 368
West Germany 369
Art. 19(2). 369
U.S.A. 369
India 369
Newly emerging Judicial trends 370
European Convention. 371
Canada. 372
Nigeria. 372
Needs of a democratic society. 373
European Convention. 373
U.S.A. 374
Proportionality. 374
Canada: S. 1. 374
Regulation and Restriction 375
What constitutes a restriction 375
U.S.A., India 375
Canada 376
European Convention. 376
Commonwealth: Malta. 376
U.S.A. 377
Who may Impose restrictions 377
Gro unds of limitation 377
International standard. 377
Universal Declaration. 377
International Covenant. 377
European Convention. 378
U.S.A. 378
Canada 378
India. 378
West Germany 379
International Covenant and European Convention. 380
India 380
European Convention. 381
Eire 381
International Charters. 381
International Charters. 382
India 382
NEWLY EMERGING JUDICIAL TRENDS
U.S.A. 384
Eire 385
European Convention. 385
International Covenant. 386
European Convention. 386
India. 386
Universal Declaration. 387
International Covenant. 387
European Convention. 387
India. 387
Eire 387
Malaysia 387
West Germany. 387
Nudism 387
Beauty Contest 387
Homosexuality. 387
West Germany 388
Eire 388
U.S.A. 388
India 389
U.K. 389
European Court. 389
Northern Ireland. 389
U.K. 390
India. 390
Morality. 391
Obscene. 392
U.K. 392
Indecent. 392
Sexual harassment of women at work place 393
European Convention. 394
U.S.A. 395
India 395
General welfare Universal Declaration. 395
European Convention. 395
Eire. 396
Japan 396
Abuse of freedom. 396
India 396
U.S.A. 399
Canada 399
U.K. 399
Universal Declaration. 399
International Covenant. 399
European Convention. 400
U.S.A. 400
Canada 401
Right to property. 401
European Convention 401
ECHR 403
India 403
Education 404
India 405
Privacy 405
Nuisance. 405
U.S.A., India 405
Eire 406
Art. 40(6)(ii). 406
Reputation. 406
West German. 406
Canada. 406
Confidentiality. 407
European Convention. 407
U.K. 407
U.S.A. 408
U.K. 408
U.S.A. 408
India 409
Prevention of abuse or destruction of guaranteed rights 409
Universal Declaration. 409
International Covenant. 409
European Convention. 409
Japan: Art. 12. 410
West Germany: Art. 18 410
Scope for Judicial Review 411
European Convention. 411
European Court. 411
Fundamental Duties 412
European Convention. 412
Tanzania. 412
India: Art. 51A. 412
NEWLY EMERGING JUDICIAL TRENDS : AN OVERVIEW
CHAPTER 7
DUE PROCESS, NATURAL JUSTICE, FUNDAMENTAL JUSTICE
International Charters 420
DUE PROCESS
Genesis of Due Process 420
U.K. 420
U.S.A. 421
5th and 14th Amendments 421
Police Power and Due Process 421
Due Process—a limitation upon the ‘Police Power’ of the Legislature 422
It extends to administrative and judicial action of the State, as well 422
The concept of ‘due process’, under different Constitutions 422
U.S.A. 422
Meaning of Due Process 422
Modern positive content 423
Procedural and substantive due process 424
U.S.A. 424
Constitution of Trinidad & Tobago: S. 4(a) 424
Eire 425
Art. 38(1) 425
‘Due Process’, ‘authority of law’ and ‘procedure established by law’ 425
Eire 426
Art. 40(4)(a) 426
Japan 426
Art. 31 426
India 427
Art. 21 427
Gopalan v. State of Madras 427
Maneka v. Union of India 429
Importing procedural due process into Art. 21 431
Right to speedy trial 433
Free legal assistance 434
U.S.A. 434
India 435
Bail 436
Cruel and unusual punishment 436
U.S.A. 436
India 436
QUESTIONS OF LIFE AND DEATH :
NEWLY EMERGING TRENDS
Mandatory sentence 440
U.S.A. 440
India 441
S. 303 I.P.C. 441
Protecting Prisoners from degrading treatment 442
U.S.A. 442
India 442
Preventive detention 445
Prisoners and Human Rights : Newly Emerging Judicial Trends 446
Substantive rights deduced from Art. 21 450
Importing substantive due process in Art. 21 450
Personal liberty 450
Americanism imported through the back-door 451
‘Life’ 451
Evolving new rights emanating from Art. 21 455
Right to human dignity 455
Equal respect for every human being 456
Means of livelihood 456
Right to Privacy 458
U.S.A. 458
India 458
Newly emerging trends and ‘Privacy’ 458
Police surveillance 458
Expansion of the writ jurisdiction under Art. 32 460
Duty to preserve life 461
Art. 19: Due Process under Art. 19 of the Constitution of India 463
Avenue for Judicial Review 463
U.S.A. 463
U.S.A. 465
Procedure and substantive Reasonableness 465
Procedural Reasonableness 465
Notice 466
Opportunity to be heard 466
Impartial tribunal 466
Substantive reasonableness 466
U.S.A. 467
India 467
U.S.A. 469
India 469
U.S.A. 471
India 471
Penal law 472
U.K. 472
U.S.A. 472
Regulatory law 473
India 473
State of M.P. v. Baldeo 473
Whether ‘restriction’ includes ‘prohibition’ 475
U.S.A. 475
India 475
NATURAL JUSTICE Due Process and Natural Justice 478
U.K. 478
Ingredients of Natural Justice 478
U.K., India 478
How the opportunity is to be given 480
Right to a ‘fair hearing’ 480
India 481
Art. 14 482
Judicial review 483
Onus 483
Art. 19: Standard of reasonableness 483
Art 21 483
Art. 311 483
FAIR HEARING
Right to a ‘fair hearing’ or ‘fair trial’ under Due Process and Natural Justice con-cepts. 484
International Covenant; European convention 484
U.K. 484
Constitutional guarantee 484
Dominica 484
Zimbabwe 484
Canada 484
Nigeria 484
Trinidad and Tobago 484
U.S.A. 485
India 485
I. Fair hearing in a civil case 485
International Covenant 485
India 485
II. Fair hearing in a criminal case 486
European Convention 486
When commences 486
U.K. 486
India 486
Ingredients of fair hearing 486
I. Right of access to a Court or tribunal 487
II. Right to equality of parties or ‘the equality of arms’ 487
III. Right to hearing by a competent tribunal 488
IV. Right to an independent and impartial tribunal 488
I. Tribunal established by law 489
VI. Right to a public hearing 489
U.S.A. 489
The Press 489
Broadcast coverage 490
U.K. 490
India 490
Cyprus 491
International Charters 491
VII. Right to hearing within a reasonable time 491
International Charters 491
European Convention 491
I. Pre-indictment stage 492
U.S.A. 492
India 492
U.K. 492
Kenya 492
II. Post-indictment stage 492
International Covenant 492
U.S.A. 493
Canada 493
Jamaica 493
Trinidad & Tobago 493
India 493
What would be unreasonable delay? 494
Remedies for violation of the guarantee of trial within reasonable time 495
VIII. Right to interpreter 499
India 499
IX. Right to proper defence 500
International Charters 500
West Samoa 500
A. Legal representation 501
European Convention [Art. 6(3)(c)] 501
U.K. 501
U.S.A. 501
India 501
B. Legal aid 502
U.K. 502
India 502
X. Right to be informed of the accusation 503
International Covenant; European Convention 504
Canada 504
India 504
Canada 504
Effects of a defective charge 505
Canada 505
India 505
XI. Right to opportunity to make a proper and full defence 506
Canada 506
India 506
U.K. 507
U.S.A. 507
Canada 507
U.K. 507
Commonwealth: Somaliland 508
Jamaica 508
XII. Presumption of innocence 511
NATURAL JUSTICE IN ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEEDING
Natural justice, fair hearing and fairness 512
Natural justice and Fairness in administrative proceedings 513
U.K. 514
Requirement of ‘fairness’ in administrative proceedings 514
Trial type of hearing 515
U.K. 516
‘Legitimate expectation’ 516
Canada 517
India 518
Where Individual hearing not feasible 519
Cases of discretionary power 519
U.K. 520
India 520
Baikuntha v. C.D.M.O. -a critique. 520
The doctrine of legitimate expectation 522
U.K. 522
India 524
Judicial review of fairness 525
Policy Decisions 525
Natural justice in proceedings of inquiry or investigation 527
India 528
Commission of Inquiry 528
Disciplinary authority 529
Administrative Tribunal 529
What type of hearing is required by due process, natural justice or fairness? 530
Trial type of hearing or a mere right of representation? 530
U.S.A. 531
India 531
Opportunity of written representation 532
Whether post-decisional hearing will satisfy natural justice 533
U.K. 533
U.S.A. 533
Canada 534
Preliminary Inquiry 534
India 534
Is the giving of reasons a necessary ingredient of natural justice? 536
Courts 537
India: Cr. P.C. 537
C.P.C. 537
Quasi-judicial bodies and Tribunals 537
Purely administrative bodies 537
Expansion of the ingredients of natural justice 540
The traditional view 540
U.K. 540
India 540
U.K. 540
India 541
U.K. 541
India 541
Requirement to state reasons 541
Art. 19 544
Art. 21 544
Exclusion of natural justice 544
Express exclusion 544
U.K. 544
U.S.A., India 544
U.S.A. 545
India 545
Commonwealth 545
Bermuda 545
Gambia 545
Post-decisional hearing 546
Onus 547
Finality clause in statute 547
India 547
U.K. 548
Gold Coast 548
India 548
U.K. 548
U.S.A. 548
U.S.A. 549
U.K. 549
U.K. 550
U.S.A. 550
Where immediate action is necessary 551
Trinidad & Tobago 551
India 551
Nature of the function 552
Legitimate expectation 553
U.K. 553
India 553
U.S.A. 553
U.K. 554
Commonwealth 554
India 554
U.K. 555
India 555
Legislative function U.K., India, Canada 558
Subordinate legislation 558
Applicability to subordinate legisla-tion 558
Change of policy 560
Doctrine of Promissory Estoppel 561
Even where hearing is excluded, the duty to act fairly remains. 563
BIAS—Nemo debet esse judex in propria causa (No one should be a judge in his cause). 564
Interest in the cause 564
Pecuniary interest 566
Personal bias 566
‘Official’ or ‘departmental’ bias 567
U.K. 568
India 568
India 569
Exceptions to the Rule against Bias 572
(a) Statutory authority 572
Statutory exception 572
(b) Statutory modification 574
(c) Official or departmental bias 574
(d) Contempt of Court 575
(e) Waiver 576
(f) Purely administrative duty 577
U.K. 577
India 578
(g) Doctrine of necessity 578
Effects of denial of natural justice: whether void or voidable? 579
U.K. 579
India 580
FUNDAMENTAL JUSTICE
The concept of Fundamental Justice 582
Canada S. 7 of the Charter 582
Liberty 584
Security of the person 585
Procedural Aspect 586
Oral hearing 587
Substantive aspect 588
CHAPTER 8
IMPACT OF EMERGENCY ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Need for extra powers during Emergency 593
The problem of Emergency in a Democracy 593
India, U.S.A., U.K. 593
Doctrine of ‘necessity’ 594
Impact on human rights 594
Scope of the present Chapter 595
Recognition for 'derogation' in the International Charters 595
Limitation and Derogation 595
I. What Public Emergency or National Emergency means 595
Public emergency: Tests of 596
Causes of: 596
N. Ireland 596
Eire 596
India 597
Kinds of Emergency 597
I. WAR EMERGENCY
International Covenant 597
European Convention 597
National Constitutions 597
Consequences of war 597
External aggression 598
Emergency powers by judicial expansion of normal powers 598
U.K. 598
Eire 600
West Germany 601
France 601
Sierra Leone 602
Nigeria 602
Tanzania 603
II. OTHER PUBLIC EMERGENCY
International Charters 603
Nepal 603
Bangladesh 603
India 604
Financial emergency 604
U.K. 604
Threat to essential services 604
Nigerian 605
India 605
France 605
U.K., N. Ireland 605
India 606
Government of India Act, 1935 606
Constitution of 1949 606
West Germany 607
Weimar Constitution 607
Constitution of 1949 608
Nigeria 608
Sierra Leone 608
India 609
I. Emergency how declared 609
International Charters 609
West Germany: Bonn Constitution 609
Malaysia 610 St. Christopher 611
Sierra Leone 611
Nigeria 611
India 612
Eire 612
Whether Emergency may be declared in respect of a part of the country 612
India 613
Art. 352(1) 613
Art. 353, Proviso 613
II. Duration of the Proclamation 614
Eire 614

West Germany 614
Bangladesh 614
Sierra Leone 614
Nigeria 615
Nepal 615
India 615
III. Termination of Emergency 616
Revocation 616
Bangladesh 616
Nepal 616
India 616
Nigeria 617
Malaysia 618
Resolution of disapproval 618
India: Art. 352(7) 618
Art. 352(8) 618
Malaysia 618
Japan 619
Emergency powers by judicial interpretation 619
U.S.A. 619
Canada 620
Need for Judicial Review of a Proclamation of Emergency 621
Need for judicial review 621
Scope of judicial review 621
I. Justiciability of the Proclamation 621
European Convention 621
U.K. 622
R. v. Halliday 622
Liversidge v. Anderson 623
India 623
U.K. 623
Khwaja v. Home Secy 624
A.G. v. Reynolds 625
Malaysia 625
India: 625
Government of India Act 625
Constitution 625
A.D.M. v. Shukla 626
State of Rajasthan v. Union of India 626
Cl. (1) : Justiciability of the Proclamation under Article 352 629
Declaration of Emergency restricted to part of India 630
Armed rebellion 630
Cl. (2): Revocation or variation of Proclamation 630
Cl. (3): Ministerial advice in writing to President 631
Cl. (4): 631
Justiciability of the Proclamation under Art. 356 632
Onus 634
Cyprus 635
Sri Lanka 635
St. Christopher, Nevis & Anguilla 635
II. Justiciability of a Proclamation of Emergency on grounds other than exter-nal danger 637
U.K. 637
U.S.A. 637
Zimbabwe 638
Sierra Leone 638
India 638
III. What measures would be justified to deal with the Emergency 639
IV. Impact of Emergency on Fundamental Rights: Limits of the power of deroga-tion 639
International Charters 639
International Covenant: Art. 4(1) 640
European Convention: Art. 15(1) 640
Rights which cannot be derogated front even in Emergency 640
India 640
Malaysia 641
Sri Lanka 641
Nigeria 641
Bangladesh 642
Singapore 642
Nepal 643
I. Effects of Termination of Emergency on Human Rights 644
International Charters 644
India 644
PREVENTIVE DETENTION
Preventive Detention in a State of Emergency 646
Preventive Detention, meaning of 646
Punitive Detention 646
Pre-trial Detention 646
Preventive Detention 647
International Charters 647
International Covenant: S. 4 647
European Convention: Art. 15(1) 647
Northern Ireland 647
Lawless v. Ireland 647
Ireland v. U.K. 648
National Constitutions 648
In Emergency: U.K. 648
Liversidge v. Anderson 649
U.S.A. 650
Malaysia: 651
Internal Security Act, 1960 651
St. Christopher 652
Kenya 652
Zimbabwe 652
Nigeria 653
Eire 653
Preventive Detention in time of peace, without declaring public emergency 653
India 653
Need for judicial review 653
International Charters 653
National Constitutions 654
Zambia 654
India 654
Rights of a person subjected to preventive detention 655
International Charters: Human Rights of a detenu 655
India 656
Right to particulars 656
St. Christopher 656
Kenya 657
India: Art. 92(5) 657
Effect or non-supply of particulars 658
Effect of supplying vague grounds 658
India 658
Nigeria 659
India 660
Communication must be in language which the detenu understands 660
India 660
Zambia 660
Validity of the grounds 660
India 661
India 662
Zimbabwe 663
India 663
Ground of judicial review of order of preventive detention 663
Ultra Vires 663
Unreasonableness of procedure 665
Justiciability of the satisfaction 665
Grounds for review 665
Non-application of mind 666
Bar of judicial review 667
Singapore 667
Malaysia 668
U.K. 668
Commonwealth 668
Singapore 668
Remedies for arbitrary detention 668
International Covenant 668
Habeas corpus 668
European Convention 668
India 669
Mandamus 670
Whether habeas corpus lies to challenge an order of preventive detention at the pre-detention stage 670
Whether the writ of habeas corpus can be suspended in an Emergency 671
International Charters 671
National Constitutions 671
India 671
U.K. 672
Right to compensation for arbitrary detention 672
International Charters 672
U.K. 672
St. Christopher 673
S. 3(6) 673
Trinidad & Tobago 674
Solomon Islands 674
Nepal 674
Suit for damages for illegal imprisonment 674
Application for judicial review 675
Australia 675
U.K. 675
Jamaica; Trinidad & Tobago 675
Kiribati 675
India 675
APPENDIX I
THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR
MINORITIES ACT, 1992
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 677
2. Definitions 677
Chapter II
The National Commission for Minorities
3. Constitution of the National Commission for Minorities 677
4. Term of office and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members 678
5. Officers and other Employees of the Commission 678
6. Salaries and allowances to be paid out of grants 678
7. Vacancies, etc., not to invalidate proceedings of the Commission 678
8. Procedure to be regulated by the Commission 678
Chapter III Functions of the Commission
9. Functions of the Commission 678
Chapter IV
Finance, Accounts and Audit
10. Grants by the Central Government 679
11. Accounts and audit 679
12. Annual report 679
13. Annual report and audit report to be laid before Parliament 679
Chapter V
Miscellaneous
14. Chairperson, Members and staff of the Commission to be public servants 680
15. Power to make rules 680
16. Power to remove difficulties 680
APPENDIX II
THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS ACT, 1992
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 682
2. Definitions 682
Chapter II
The National Human Rights Commission
3. Constitution of a National Human Rights Commission 682
4. Appointment of Chairperson and other Members 683
5. Resignation and removal of Chairperson and Members 683
6. Term of office of Chairpersons and Members 683
7. Member to act as Chairperson or to discharge his functions in certain cir-cumstances 684
8. Terms and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members 684
9. Vacancies, etc., not to invalidate the proceedings of the Commission 684
10. Procedure to be regulated by the Commission 684
11. Officers and staff of the commission 684
Chapter III
Functions and Powers of the Commission
12. Functions of the Commission 685
13. Powers relating to inquiries 685
14. Investigation 686
15. Statement made by persons to the Commission 686
16. Persons likely to be prejudicially affected to be head 686
Chapter IV
Procedure
17. Inquiry into complaints 686
18. Steps during and after inquiry 687
19. Procedure with respect to armed forces 687
20. Annual and special reports of the Com-mission 688
Chapter V
State Human Rights Commissions
21. Constitution of State Human Rights Commissions 688
22. Appointment of Chairperson and other Members of State Commission 688
23. Resignation and removal of Chairperson or a Member of the State Commis-sion 689
24. Term of office of Chairperson and Members of the State Commission 689
25. Member to act as Chairperson or to discharge his functions in certain cir-cumstances 689
26. Terms and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members of the State Commission 689
27. Officers and other staff of the State Commission 690
28. Annual and special reports of State Commission 690
29. Application of certain provisions relating to N.H.R.C. to State Commis-sions 690
Chapter VI
Human Rights Courts
30. Human Rights Courts 690
31. Special Public Prosecutor 690
Chapter VII
Finance, Accounts and Audit
32. Grants by the Central Government 690
33. Grants by the State Government 691
34. Accounts and audit 691
35. Accounts and audit of State Commission 691
Chapter VIII
Miscellaneous
36. Matters not subject to jurisdiction of the Commission 691
37. Constitution of special investigation teams 691
38. Protection of action taken in good faith 691
39. Members and officers to be public servants 691
40. Power of Central Government to make rules 692
40A. Power to make rules retrospectively 692
40B. Power of Commission to make regulations 692
41. Power of State Government to make rules 692
42. Power to remove difficulties 693
44. Repeal and savings 693
APPENDIX III
THE NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION
(PROCEDURE) REGULATIONS, 1994
1. Short title and commencement 694
2. Definitions 694
3. Headquarters of the Commission 694
4. Venue of the meetings 694
5. Periodicity of meetings 694
6. Secretariat assistance 694
7. Agenda 694
8. Procedure for dealing with complaints 695
9. Minutes of the meetings 695
10. Record of minutes 696
11. Report of action taken 696
12. Transaction of business outside the Headquarters 696
13. Authentication of orders and decisions 696
14. Annual Report 696
15. Special Report 696
16. Reports on complaints and inquiries 696
17. Printing of the reports 696
18. Investigation team 696
19. As and when any matter 696
APPENDIX IV
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS, 1948
1. Preamble 697
2. The General Assembly proclaims 697
APPENDIX V
INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL
AND POLITICAL RIGHTS, 1966 700
APPENDIX VI
INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS, 1966 709
APPENDIX VII
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE
ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF
RACIAL DISCRIMINATION, 1966 714
APPENDIX VIII
AMERICAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN
RIGHTS, 1969 716
APPENDIX IX
AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN RIGHTS
AND PEOPLES’ RIGHTS, 1981
Chapter I
Human and Peoples’ Rights 721
Chapter II
Duties 723

APPENDIX X
THE COMMISSION OF SATI (PREVENTION)
ACT, 1987
Part 1
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 725
2. Definitions 725
Part II
Punishments for Offences Relating to Sati
3. Attempt to commit sati 726
4. Abetment of sati 726
5. Punishment for glorification of sati 727
Part III
Powers of Collector or District Magistrate
To Prevent Offences Relating to Sati
6. Power to prohibit certain acts 727
7. Power to remove certain temples or other structures 727
8. Power to seize certain properties 727
Part IV
Special Courts
9. Trial of offence under this Act 727
10. Special Public Prosecutors 727
11. Procedure and powers of Special Courts 728
12. Power of special Court with respect to other offences 728
13. Forfeiture of funds or property 728
14. Appeal 728
Part V
Miscellaneous
15. Protection of action taken under this Act 728
16. Burden of proof 728
17. Obligation of certain persons to report 728
18. Person convicted of an offence under Section 4 728
19. Amendment of Act 43 of 1951 728
20. Act to have overriding effect 729
21. Power to make rules 729
22. Repeal of existing laws 729
APPENDIX XI
COMMISSION OF SATI (PREVENTION)
RULES, 1988
1. Short title and commencement 730
2. Defintions 730
3. Delegation of power to prohibit certain acts 730
4. Prohibitory orders under Section 6, how made 730
5. Manner of making order for removal of temples 730
6. Manner of making order for removal of temples 731
7. Inventory and forfeiture of the property of temple or structure 731
APPENDIX XII
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part II
Citizenship
Art. 1. Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution 733
Art. 6. Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan 733
Art. 7. Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan 733
Art. 8. Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India 734
Art. 9. Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens 734
Art. 10. Continuance of the rights of citizenship 734
Art. 11. Parliament to regulate the rights of citizenship by law 734
Part III
Fundamental Rights
GENERAL
Art. 12. Definition 734
Art. 13. Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fund. rights 734
Right to Equality
Art. 14. Equality before law 734
Art. 15. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth 734
Art. 16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. 735
Art. 17. Abolition of untouchability 735
Art. 18. Abolition of titles 735 Right to Freedom
Art. 19. Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc. 735
Art. 20. Protection in respect of conviction for offences 736
Art. 21. Protection of life and personal liberty 736
Art. 21A. Right to edcuation 736
Art. 22. Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases 736 Right Against Exploitation
Art. 23. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour 737
Art. 24. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. 737 Right to Freedom of Religion
Art. 25. Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion 737
Art. 26. Freedom to manage religious affairs 738
Art. 27. Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion 738
Art. 28. Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions 738 Cultural and Educational Rights
Art. 29. Protection of interests of minorities 738
Art. 30. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational in-stitutions 738
Art. 31. Compulsory acquisition of property 738 Saving of Certain Laws
Art. 31-A. Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc. 738
Art. 31-B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations 739
Art. 31-C. Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles 739
Art. 31-D. Saving of laws in respect of anti-national activities 740
Right to Constitutional Remedies
Art. 32. Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part 740
Part IV
Directive Principles of State Policy
Art. 39-A. Equal justice and free legal aid 740
Art. 41. Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases 740
Art. 48-A. Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild-life 740
Art. 50. Separation of judiciary from executive 740
Part IV-A
Fundamental Duties
Art. 51-A. Fundamental duties 740
Chapter IV
Right to Property
Art. 300-A. Persons not to be deprived of property saved by authority of law 741
Part XIII
Trade, Commerce and Intercourse
within the Territory of India
Art. 301. Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse 741
Art. 302. Power of Parliament to impose restriction on trade, commerce and intercourse 741
Part XVI
Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes
Art. 330. Reservation of seats for Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People 741
Art. 330. Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the people 742
Art. 332. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States 742
Art. 333. Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States 743
Art. 334. Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after [sixty-years] 743
Art. 335. Claims of Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes to services and posts 743
Art. 336. Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services 743
Art. 337. Special provision with respect to an educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community 743
Art. 338. National Commission for Scheduled Castes 744
Art. 338A. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes 745
Art. 339. Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes 745
Art. 340. Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of back-ward clases 746
Art. 341. Scheduled Castes 746
Art. 342. Scheduled Tribes 746
APPENDIX XIII
THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR
BACKWARD CLASSES ACT, 1993
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 747
2. Definitions 748
Chapter II
The National Commission for Backward Classes
3. Constitution of National Commission for BC 748
4. Term of office and conditions of service 748
5. Officers and other employees of the Commission 748
6. Salaries and allowances to be paid out of grants 748
7. Vacancies, etc., not to invalidate proceedings 749
8. Procedure to be regulated by the Commission 749
Chapter III
Functions and Powers of the Commission
9. Functions of the Commission 749
10. Powers of the Commission 749
11. Periodic revision of lists by the Central Government 749
Chapter IV
Finance, Accounts and Audit
12. Grants by the Central Government 749
13. Accounts and audit 749
14. Annual report 750
15. Annual report and audit report to be laid before Parliament 750
Chapter V
Miscellaneous
16. Chairperson, Members and employees of the Commission 750
17. Power to make rules 750
18. Power to remove difficulties 750
19. Repeal and Saving 750
APPENDIX XIV
THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR
SAFAI KARAMCHARS ACT, 1993
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent, application, commencement 752
2. Definitions 752
Chapter II
The National Commission for Safai Karamcharis
3. Constitution of National Commission 752
4. Term of office and conditions of service of Chairperson 752
5. Officers and other employees of the Commission 753
6. Vacancy, etc., not to invalidate the proceedings 753
7. Procedure to be regulated by the Commission 753
Chapter III
Functions and Powers of the Commission
8. Functions and powers of the Commission 753
Chapter IV
Miscellaneous
9. Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and Members 754
10. Central Government to consult Commission 754
11. Annual Report 754
12. Annual report to be laid before Parliament 754
13. Delegation of powers 754
14. Protection of action taken in good faith 754
15. Power to make rules 754
APPENDIX XV
THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR
WOMEN ACT, 1990
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 755
2. Definitions 755
Chapter II
The National Commission for Women
3. Constitution of the National Commission for Women 756
4. Term of office and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members 756
5. Officers and other employees of the Commission 756
6. Salaries and allowances to be paid out of grants 756
7. Vacancies, etc., not to invalidate proc. of the Commission 756
8. Committees of the Commission 757
9. Procedure to be regulated by the Commission 757
Chapter III
Functions of the Commission
10. Functions of the Commission 757
Chapter IV
Finance, Accounts and Audit
11. Grants by the Central Government 758
12. Accounts and audit 758
13. Annual report 758
14. Annual report and audit report to be laid before Parliament 758
Chapter V
Miscellaneous
15. Chairperson, Members and staff of the Commission 758
16. Central Government to consult Commission 759
17. Power to make rules 759
APPENDIX XVI
THE PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (EQUAL
OPPORTUNITIES, PROTECTION OF RIGHTS
AND FULL PARTICIPATION) ACT, 1995
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 761
2. Definitions 762
Chapter II
The Central Co-Ordination Committee
3. Central Co-ordination Committee 763
4. Term of office of Members 764
5. Disqualifications 764
6. Vacation of seats by a Member 764
7. Meetings of the Central Co-ordination Committee 765
8. Functions of the Central Co-ordination Committee 765
9. Central Executive Committee 765
10. Functions of the Central Executive Committee 766
11. Meetings of the Central Executive Committee 766
12. Temporary association of persons with Central Executive Committee for particular purposes 766
Chapter III
The State CO-Ordination Committee
13. State co-ordination Committee 766
14. Terms and conditions of service of Members 767
15. Disqualifications 767
16. Vacation of seats 767
17. Meetings of the State Co-ordination Committee 767
18. Functions of the State Co-ordination Committee 767
19. State Executive Committee 768
20. Functions of the State Executive Committee 768
21. Meetings of the State Executive Committee 768
22. Temporary association of persons with State Executive Committee for particular purposes 768
23. Power to give directions 768
24. Vacancies not to invalidate proceedings 768
Chapter IV
Prevention and Early Detection of Disabilities
25. Appropriate Government and local authorities to take certain steps for the prevention of occurrence of disabilities 769
Chapter V
Education
26. Appropriate Government and local authorities to provide children with disa-bilities free education, etc. 769
27. Appropriate Government and local authorities to make schemes and pro-grammes for non-formal education, etc. 769
28. Research for designing and developing new assistive devices, teaching aids, etc. 769
29. Appropriate Govt. to set up teachers’ training institutions ti develop trained manpower for schools for children with disabilities 769
30. Appropriate Governmentt to prepare a Comprehensive education scheme providing for transport facilities, supply of books, etc. 770
31. Educational institutions to provide amanuensis to students with visual handicap 770
Chapter VI
Employment
32. Identification of posts which can be reserved 770
33. Reservation of posts 770
34. Special Employment Exchange 770
35. Power to inspect record or document in possession of any establishment 770
36. Vacancies not filled up to be carried forward 770
37. Employer to maintain records 771
38. Schemes for ensuring employment of persons with disabilities 771
39. All educational institutions to reserve seats 771
40. Vacancies to be reserved in Poverty Alleviation Schemes 771
41. Incentives to employers to ensure five per cent of the work force is compo-sed of persons with disabilities 771
Chapter VII
Affirmative Action
42. Aids and appliances to persons with disabilities 771
43. Schemes for preferential allot. of land for certain purposes 771

Chapter VIII
Non-Discrimination
44. Non-discrimination in transport 771
45. Non-discrimination in on the road 772
46. Non-discrimination in the built environment 772
47. Non-discrimination in Government employment 772
Chapter IX
Research and Manpower Development
48. Research 772
49. Financial incentives to Universities to enable them to undertake research 772
Chapter X
Recognition of Institutions for Persons with Disabilities
50. Competent authority 772
51. No person to establish or maintain an institution for persons with disabili-ties 772
52. Certificate of registration 773
53. Revocation of certificate 773
54. Appeal 773
55. Act not to apply to institutions established or maintained by the Central or State Government 773
Chapter XI
Institutions for Persons with Severe Disabilities
56. Institution for persons with severe disabilities 774
Chapter XII
The Chief Commissioner and Commissioners for
Persons with Disabilities
57. Appointment of Chief Commissioner for persons with disabilities 774
58. Functions of the Chief Commissioner 774
59. Chief Commissioner to look into complaints with respect to deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities 774
60. Appointment of Commissioners for persons with disabilities 774
61. Powers of the Commissioner 775
62. Commissioner to look into complaints with respect ot matters relating to deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities 775
63. Authorities and officers to have certain powers of Civil Court 775
64. Annual report to be prepared by the Chief Commissioner 775
65. Annual reports to be prepared by the Commissioners 775
Chapter XIII
Social Security
66. Appropriate Government and local authorities to undertake rehabilitation 776
67. Insurance scheme for employees with disabilities 776
68. Unemployment allowance 776
Chapter XIV
Miscellaneous
69. Punishment for fraudulently availing any benefit meant for persons with disabilities 776
70. Chief Commissioner, Commissioners, Officers and other staff to be public servants 776
71. Protection of action taken in good faith 776
72. Act to be in addition to and not in derogation of any other law 776
73. Power of appropriate Government to make rules 776
74. Amendment of Act 39 of 1987 778
APPENDIX XVII
THE PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (EQUAL
OPPORTUNITIES, PROTECTION OF RIGHTS
AND FULL PARTICIPATION) RULES, 1996
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, and commencement 779
2. Definitions 780
Chapter II
Guidelines for Evaluation and Assessment
of Various Disabilities
3. The general guidance 780
4. Authorities to give Disability Certificate 780
5. The Medical Board 780
6. The Certificate issued 780
Chapter III
The Central Co-Ordination Committee
7. Nomination of State Government representatives by rotation 780
8. Membership Roll 780
9. Change of Address 780
10. Daily and Travelling Allowances 780
11. Notice of Meetings 781
12. Presiding Officer 781
13. Quorum 781
14. Minutes 782
15. Maintaining order at meeting 782
16. Business to be transacted at meeting 782
17. At any meeting 782
18. Decision by majority 782
19. No proceeding to be invalid due to vacancy 782
Chapter IV
The Central Executive Committee
20. Nomination of State Government representatives by rotation 782
21. Daily and Travelling Allowances 782
22. Notice of meetings 782
23. Presiding Officer 783
24. Quorum 783
25. Minutes 783
26. Maintaining order at meeting 783
27. Business to be transacted at meeting 783
28. At any meeting 783
29. Decision by majority 783
30. No proceeding to be invalid due to vacancy 784
31. Manner and purpose of association of persons with Central Executive Com-mittee 784
32. Fee for the associated person 784
33. Tours by associated person 784
34. Associated person not to disclose any information 784
35. Duties and functions of the associated person 784
Chapter V
Employment
36. Computation of vacancies 784
37. Notificagtion of vacancies to the Special Employment Exchanges 784
38. Form and manner of notification of vacancies 784
39. Time-limit for the notification of vacancies 785
40. Submission or returns 785
41. Form in which record to be kept by an employer 785
Chapter VI
Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities
42. Procedure to be followed by Chief Commissioner 785
43. Salary and allowances of the Chief Commissioner 786
44. Submission of Report to central Government 786
45. Submission of annual report 786
Form Dper II 788
Form Dper III 788
46. Vacancies 789
APPENDIX XVIII
THE PRE-CONCEPTION AND PRE-NATAL
DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES (PROHIBITION
OF SEX SELECTION) ACT, 1994
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 792
2. Definitions 792
Chapter II
Regulation of Genetic Counselling Centres,
Genetic Laboratories and Genetic Clinics
3. Regulation of Genetic Counselling Centres, Genetic Laboratories and Ge-netic Clinics 793
3A. Prohibition of sex-selection 793
3B. Prohibition on sale of ultrasound machine, etc. to persons, laboratories, clinics, etc., not registered under the Act 793 Chapter III Regulation of Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques
4. Regulation of pre-natal diagnostic techniques 794
5. Written consent of pregnant woman and prohibition of communicating the sex of foetus 794
6. Determination of sex prohibited 794
Chapter IV
Central Supervisory Board
7. Constitution of Central Supervisory Board 795
8. Term of office of members 795
9. Meetings of the Board 796
10. Vacancies, etc., not to invalidate proceedings of the Board 796
11. Temporary association of persons with the Board for particular purposes 796
12. Appointment of officers and other employees of the Board 796
13. Authentication of orders and other instruments of the Board 796
14. Disqualifications for appointment as a member 796
15. Eligibility of member for re-appointment 797
16. Functions of the Board 796
16A. Constitution of State Supervisory Board and Union Territory Supervisory Board 797
Chapter V
Appropriate Authority and Advisory Committee
17. Appropriate Authority and Advisory Committee 798
17A. Powers of Appropriate Authorities 799
Chapter VI
Registration of Genetic Counselling Centres,
Genetic Laboratories and Genetic Clinics
19. Registration of Genetic Counselling Centres, Genetic Laboratories or Gene-tic Clinics 799
20. Certificate of registration 800
21. Cancellation or suspension of registration 800
22. Appeal 800
Chapter VII
Offences and Penalties
22. Prohibition of advertisement relating to pre-conception and prenatal deter-mination of sex and punishment for contravention 800
23. Offences and penalties 801
24. Presumption in the case of conduct of pre-natal diagnostic techniques 801
25. Penalty for contravention of the provisions of the Act or rules for which no specific punishment is provided 801
26. Offences by companies 801
27. Offence to be congnizable, non-bailable and non-compoundable 801
28. Cognizance of offences 801
Chapter VIII
Miscellaneous
29. Maintenance of records 802
30. Power to search and seize records, etc. 802
31. Protection of action taken in good faith 802 31A. Removal of difficulties 802
32. Power to make rules 802
33. Power to make regulations 803
34. Rules and regulations to be laid before Parliament 803
APPENDIX XIX
THE PROTECTION OF CIVIL RIGHTS ACT, 1955
1. Short title, extent and commencement 804
2. Definitions 804
3. Punishment for enforcing religious disabilities 805
4. Punishment for enforcing social disabilities 805
5. Punishment for refusing to admit person to hospitals, etc. 806
6. Punishment for refusing to sell goods or render services 806
7. Punishment for other offences arising out of ‘‘untouchability’’ 806
7A. Unlawful compulsory labour when to be deemed to be a practice of ‘‘untou-chability’’ 807
8. Cancellation or suspension of licences in certain cases 807
9. Resumption or suspension of grants made by Government 807
10. Abetment of offence 807
10-A. Power of State Government to impose collective fine 808
11. Enhanced penalty on subsequent conviction 808
12. Presumption by Courts in certain cases 808
13. Limitation of jurisdiction of civil Courts 808
14. Offences by Companies 808
14-A. Protection of action taken in good faith 809
15. Offences to be cognizable and triable summarily 809
15-A.Duty of State Government to ensure that the rights accruing from the aboli-tion of ‘‘untouchability’’ may be availed of by the concerned persons 809
16. Act to override other laws 810
16-A. Probation of Offenders Act, 1958, not to apply to persons above the age of fourteen years 810
16-B. Power to make rules 810
17. Repeal 810
APPENDIX XX
THE PROTECTION OF CIVIL RIGHTS RULES, 1977
1. Short title and commencement 811
2. Definitions 811
3. Manner of inquiry under sub-section (1) of Section 10-A 811
4. Period for filing a petition under sub-section (3) of Section 10-A 811
5. Report by the Government 812
APPENDIX XXI
THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND THE SCHEDULED TRIBES
(PREVENTION OF ATROCITIES) ACT, 1989
Chapter I
Preliminary
1. Short title, extent and commencement 813
2. Definitions 814
Chapter II
Offences of Atrocities
3. Punishments for offences of atrocities 814
4. Punishment for neglect of duties 815
5. Enhanced punishment for subsequent conviction 815
6. Application of certain provisions of the Indian Penal Code 815
7. Forfeiture of property of certain persons 815
8. Presumption as to offences 816
9. Conferment of powers 816
Chapter III
Externment
10. Removal of person likely to commit offence 816
11. Procedure on failure of person to remove himself from area and enter there-on after removal 816
12. Taking measurements and photographs, etc., of persons against whom order under Section 10 is made 817
13. Penalty for non-compliance with order under Section 10 817
Chapter IV
Special Courts
14. Special Court 817
15. Special Public Prosecutor 817
Chapter V
Miscellaneous
16. Power of State Government to impose collective fine 817
17. Preventive action to be taken by the law and order machinery 817
18. Section 438 of the Code not to apply to persons committing an offence under the Act 817
19. Section 360 of the Code or the provisions of the Probation of Offenders Act not to apply to persons guilty of an offence under the Act 817
20. Act to override other laws 818
21. Duty of Government to ensure effective implementation of the Act 818
22. Protection of action taken in good faith 818
23. Power to make rules 818
APPENDIX XXII
THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND THE SCHEDULED
TRIBES (PREVENTION OF ATROCITIES)
RULES, 1995
1. Short title and commencement 820
2. Definitions 820
3. Precautionary and preventive measures 820
4. Supervision of prosecution and submission of report 821
5. Information to Police Officer-in-Charge of a Police Station 821
6. Spot inspection by officers 821
7. Investigating Officer 822
8. Setting up of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes Protection Cell 822
9. Nomination of Nodal Officer 822
10. Appointment of a Special Officer 822
11. Travelling Allowance, Daily Allowance, Maintenance Expenses and Trans-port Facilities to the victim of atrocity, his or her dependants and witnesses 823
12. Measures to be taken by the District Administration 823
13. Selection of Officers and other staff members for completing the work rela-ting to atrocity 824
14. Specific responsibilities of the State Government 824
15. Contingency Plan by the State Government 824
16. Constitution of State-Level Vigilance and Monitoring Committee 824
17. Constitution of District-Level Vigilance and Monitoring Committee 825
18. Material for Annual Report 825
Annexure 1
Norms for Relief Amount 825
Annexure II
Uniform Definitions of the Physically Handicapped 827
Order
Combined Report of Three Committees Recommending
Uniform set of Definitions, Authorities for Certification
and Standard Tests for Visual, Hearing and Speech
and Locomotor Disabilities
19. Introduction 828
20. Recommended Definitions 828
1. Evaluation and Assessment of Visual Disabilities 828
2. Evaluation and Assessment of Hearing and Speech Disability 829
3. Evaluation and Assessment of Orthopaedic Disabilities 829
21. The Authorities to give Certification 829
1. Concessions/Facilities which may be offered to Disabled Persons 829
2. Evaluation and Assessment of Hearing and Speech Disability 830
3. Evaluation and Assessment of Orthopaedic Disabilities 830
4. The Authorities to give Certification 830
5. Concessions/Facilities which may be offered to Disabled Persons 830
Appendix I
22. Composition of Committees to recommend standard definitions of Disabi-lities 831
On Visually Handicapped 831
On Hearing Handicapped 831
On Orthopaedically Handicapped 832
(1) Visually Handicapped 832
Scholarships 832
Locomotor Handicapped 833
Situation in State Governments 833

Appendix III
Visual Impairment Disability Categories based on its
Severity and Proposed Disability Percentages 833
Appendix IV
A. Recommendations about the Categories
and the Tests Required
I. Recommended classification 834
II. Recommendations about the categories of disability (Hearing Impair-ment—Physical aspect only—Test recommended). 834
23. Suggestions of the Facilities to be Offered to Disabled for Rehabilitation 834
Appendix V
24. Principles of Evaluation of Strength of muscles 834
25. Combining value for the Arm Component 834
26. Hand Component 836
27. Principles of Evaluation of Prehension 836
28. Principles of Evaluation of Sensations 836
29. Principles of Evaluation of Strength 836
30. Combining value of the hand component 837
31. Mobility Component 837
32. Principles of Evaluation of Range of Movement 837
33. Principles of Evaluation of Muscle Strength 837
34. Combining Values for the Mobility Component 838
35. Stability Component 838
36. Traumatic Lesions 839
37. Cervical Intervertebral Disc 839
38. Thoracic and Dorsolumbar Spine Fracture 839
39. Low Lumbar 839
40. Non-Traumatic Lesions 839
41. Paralysis of Flexors and Extensors of Dorsal and Lumbar Spine 840
42. Paralysis of Muscles of Cervical Spine 840
43. Miscellaneous 840
44. Guidelines for Evaluation of Permanent Physical Impairment in Amputees 840
45. Upper Limb Amputations 840
46. Lower Limb Amputations 841
47. Guidelines for Assessment of Physical Impairment in Neurological Condi-tions 841
48. Guidelines for Assessment of Physical Impairment in Neurological Condi-tions 842
49. Sppech disability 841
50. Guidelines for Evaluation of Physical Impairment due to Cardio Pulmonary Diseases 842
Appendix VI
Mental Disorders 843
APPENDIX XXIII
INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
1. The Covenant of the League of Nations (1919) 844
2. Slavery Convention (1926) 846
3. Protocol Amending The Slavery Convention (1953) 847
4. Annex To The Protocol Amending The Slavery Convention Signed at Geneva on 25 September, 1926 848
5. Convention Concerning Forced Labour (1930) 849
6. Charter of the United Nations (1945) 853
Chapter I
Purposes and Principles 854
Chapter IV
The General Assembly 855
Chapter IX
International Economic and Social Co-Operation 855
Chapter X
The Economic and Social Council 855
Chapter XI
Declaration Regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories 856
Chapter XII
International Trusteeship System
7. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948) 857
8.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) 859
9. Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the exploi-tation of the Prostitution of 0thers (1949) 861
10. Final Protocol 864
11. Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1952) 865
12. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956) 866
13. Section I—Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery 866
14. Section II—The Slave Trade 866
15. Section III—Slavery and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery 867
16. Section IV—Definitions 867
17. Section V—Co-Operation between States Parties and Communication of Information 867
18. Section VI —Final Clauses 867
19. Convention Concerning the abolition of Forced Labour (1957) 868
20. Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959) 870
21. United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (1963) 871
22. International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discri-mination (1966) 873
23. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) 879
24. (First) Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Politi-cal Rights (1966) 887
25. Second Optional Protocol to the Inter-national Covenant on Civil and Poli-tical Rights, Aiming at the Abolition of the Death Penalty (1990) 889
26. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) 890
27. Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (1967) 895
28. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (1973) 897
29. Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Wo-men (1979) 899
30. Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimi-nation based on Religion or Belief (1981) 905
31. Convention against torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treat-ment or Punishment (1984) 907
32. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) 913
33. Declaration on the Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Reli-gious and Linguistic Minorities (1992) 922
APPENDIX XXIV
UNITED NATIONS PROCEDURE FOR HANDLING
HUMAN RIGHTS COMPLAINTS
1. Resolution 728F (xxviii) of the Economic and Social Council Communica-tions Concerning Human Rights 925
2. Resolution 1235 (xlii) of the Economic and Social Council 926
3. Resolution 1503 (xlviii) of the Economic and Social Council 926
4. Resolution 1 (xxiv) of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimina-tion and Protection of Minorities 928
APPENDIX XXV
REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS
CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS (1950)
1. Obligation to respect human rights 931
Section I—Rights and Freedoms
2. Right to life 932
3. Prohibition of torture 932
4. Prohibition of slavery and forced labour 932
5. Right to liberty and security 932
6. Right to a fair trial 932
7. No punishment without law 933
8. Right to respect for family and private life 933
9. Freedom of thought, conscience and religion 933
10. Freedom of expression 933
11. Freedom of assembly and association 933
12. Right to marry 934
13. Right to an effective remedy 934
14. Prohibition of discrimination 934
15. Derogation in time of emergency 934
16. Restrictions on political activity of aliens 934
17. Prohibition of abuse of rights 934
18. Limitation on use of restrictions on rights 934
Section II—
European Court of Human Rights
19. Establishment of the Court 934
20. Number of judges 934
21. Criteria for office 934
22. Election of Judges 934
23. Terms of office 935
24. Dismissal 935
25. Registry and legal secretaries 935
26. Plenary Court 935
27. Committees, Chambers and Grand Chamber 935
28. Declarations of inadmissibility by committees 935
29. Decisions by Chambers on admissibility and merits 935
30. Relinquishment of jurisdiction to the Grand Chamber 936
31. Powers of the Grand Chamber 936
32. Jurisdiction of the Court 936
33. Inter-State cases 936
34. Individual applications 936
35. Admissibility criteria 936
36. Third-party intervention 936
37. Striking out applications 936
38. Examination of the case and friendly settlement proceedings 937
39. Finding of a friendly settlement 937
40. Public hearings and access to documents 937
41. Just satisfaction 937
42. Judgments of Chambers 937
43. Referral to the Grand Chamber 937
44. Final judgments 937
45. Reasons for judgments and decisions 937
46. Binding force and execution of judgments 937
47. Advisory opinions 937
48. Advisory jurisdiction of the Court 938
49. Reasons for advisory opinions 938
50. Expenditure on the Court 938
51. Privileges and immunities of judges 938
Section III—Miscellaneous Provisions
52. Enquiries by the Secretary-General 938
53. Safeguard for existing human rights 938
54. Powers of the Committee of Ministers 938
55. Exclusion of other means of dispute settlement 938
56. Territorial application 938
57. Reservations 938
58. Denunciation 939
59. Signature and ratification 939
First Protocol (1952)
1. Protection of property 939
2. Right to education 939
3. Right to free elections 939
4. Territorial application 939
5. Relationship to the Convention 940
6. Signature and ratification 940
Fourth Protocol (1963)
Securing certain rights and freedoms other than those
already included in the Convention and in the
first Protocol thereto]
1. Prohibition of imprisonment for debt 940
2. Freedom of movement 940
3. Prohibition of expulsion of nationals 940
4. Prohibition of collective expulsion of aliens 940
5. Territorial application 940
6. Relationship to the Convention 941
7. Signature and ratification 941
Sixth Protocol (1983)
[Concerning the abolition of the death penalty]
1. Abolition of the death penalty 941
2. Death penalty in time of war 941
3. Prohibition of derogations 941
4. Prohibition of reservations 941
5. Territorial application 941
6. Relationship to the Convention 942
7. Signature and ratification 942
8. Entry into force 942
9. Depository functions 942
Seventh Protocol (1984)
1. Procedural safeguards relating to expulsion of aliens 942
2. Right of appeal in criminal matters 942
3. Compensation for wrongful conviction 942
4. Right not to be tried or punished twice 943
5. Equality between spouses 943
6. Territorial applications 943
7. Relationship to the Convention 943
8. Signature and ratification 943
9. Entry into force 943
10. Depository functions 943
European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman
or Degrading Reatment or Punishment (1987) 944
First Protocol (1993) 947
Second Protocol (1993) 947
America
American Convention on Human Rights
(‘Pact of San Jose, Costa Rica’) (1969) 948
Part I
State Obligations and Rights Protected 948
Chapter I
General Obligations
1. Obligation to respect rights 948
2. Domestic legal effects 948
Chapter II
Civil and Political Rights
3. Right to juridical personality 949
4. Right to life 949
5. Right to humane treatment 949
6. Freedom from slavery 949
7. Right to personal liberty 949
8. Right to a fair trial 950
9. Freedom from ex post facto laws 950
10. Right to compensation 950
11. Right to privacy 950
12. Freedom of conscience and religion 950
13. Freedom of thought and expression 951
14. Right of reply 951
15. Right of assembly 951
16. Freedom of association 951
17. Rights of the family 951
18. Right to a name 952
19. Rights of the child 952
20. Right to nationality 952
21. Right to property 952
22. Freedom of movement and residence 952
23. Right to participate in government 952
24. Right to equal protection 952
25. Right to judicial protection 953
Chapter III
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
26. Progressive development 953
Chapter IV
Suspension of Guarantees, Interpretation, and Application
27. Suspension of guarantees 953
28. Federal clause 953
29. Restrictions regarding interpretation 953
30. Scope of restrictions 954
31. Recognition of other rights 954
Chapter V
Personal Responsibilities
32. Relationship between duties and rights 954
Part II
Means of Protection 952
Chapter VI
Competent Organs 952
Chapter VII
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 952
Section 1—Organization 952
Section 2—Functions 952
Section 3—Competence 952
Section 4—Procedure 956
Chapter VIII
Inter-American Court of Human Rights 957
Section 1—Organization 957
Section 2—Jurisdiction and Functions 957
Section 3—Procedure 958
Chapter IX
Common Provisions 958
Part III
General and Transitory Provisions 959
Chapter X
Signature, Ratification, Reservations,
Amendments, Protocols, and Denunciation 959
Chapter XI
Transitory Provisions 959
Section 1—Inter-American Commission on
Human Rights 959
Section 2—Inter-American Court
of Human Rights 960
Additional Protocol to the American Convention on
Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights ‘Protocol of San Sal Vador’ (1988)
1. Obligation to Adopt Measures 960
2. Obligation to Enact Domestic Legislation 960
3. Obligation of non-discrimination 961
4. Inadmissibility of Restrictions 961
5. Scope of Restrictions and Limitations 961
6. Right to Work 961
7. Just, Equitable, and Satisfactory Conditions of Work 961
8. Trade Union Rights 961
9. Right to Social Security 962
10. Right to Health 962
11. Right to a Healthy Environment 962
12. Right to Food 962
13. Right to Education 962
14. Right to the Benefits of Culture 963
15. Right to the Formation and the Protection of Families 963
16. Rights of Children 963
17. Protection of the Elderly 963
18. Protection of the Handicapped 963
19. Means of Protection 964
20. Reservations 964
21. Signature, Ratification or Accession, Entry into Effect 964
22. Inclusion of other Rights and Expansion of those Recognized 964
Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights
to Abolish the Death Penalty (1990) 965
Have Agreed to Sign the following Protocol to the
American Convention on Human Rights to
Abolish the Death penalty 965
Inter-American Convention to Prevent
and Punish Torture (1985) 965
Africa
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1981) 968
Part I
Rights and Duties 968
Chapter I
Human and Peoples’ Rights 968
Chapter II
Duties 970
Part II
Measures of Safeguard 971
Chapter I
Establishment and Organization of the African
Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights 971
Chapter II
Mandate of the Commission 972
Chapter III
Procedure of the Commission 972
Communication from States 972
Other Communications 973
Chapter IV
Application Principles 974
Part III
General Provisions 974
APPENDIX XXVI
CONFERENCE ON SECURITY AND CO-OPERATION
IN EUROPE INSTRUMENTS
Conference on Security and Co-Operation in
Europe: Final Act, Helsinki (1975) 975
Questions Relating to Security in Europe
1. (a) Declaration on Principles Guiding Relations between Participating States 979
I. Sovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty 979
II. Refraining from the threat or use of force 979
III. Inviolability of frontiers 980
IV. Territorial integrity of States 980
I. Peaceful settlement of disputes 980
VI. Non-intervention in internal affairs 980
VII. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief 980
VIII. Equal rights and self-determination of peoples 981
IX. Co-operation among States 981
X. Fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law 981
(b) Matters related to giving effect to cer-tain of the above Principles 982
(i) The participating States 982
(ii) The participating States 982
2. Document on confidence-building measu-res and certain aspects of security and disarmament 983
The participating States, 983
I. Prior notification of major military manoeuvres 983
Prior notification of major military manoeuvres 983
Exchange of observers 984
Prior notification of major military movements 984
Other confidence-building measures 984
II. Questions relating to disarmament 984
III. General considerations 984
Co-Operation in the field of Economics, Science,
Technology and of the Environment 984
1. Commercial Exchanges 985
General provisions 985
Business contacts and facilities 986
Economic and commercial information 986
Marketing 987
2. Industrial co-operation and projects of common interest 987
Industrial co-operation 987
Projects of common interest 988
3. Provisions concerning trade and individual co-operation 989
Harmonization of standards 989
Arbitration 989
Specific bilateral arrangements 989
4. Science and technology 989
Possibilities for improving co-operation 990
Fields of co-operation 990
Agriculture 990
Energy 990
New technologies, rational use of resources 990
Transport technology 990
Physics 990
Chemistry 990
Meteorology and hydrology 990
Oceanography 990
Seismological research 991
Research on glaciology, permafrost and problems of life under condi-tions of cold 991
Computer, communication and information technologies 991
Space research 991
Medicine and public health 991
Environmental research 991
Forms and methods of co-operation 991
5. Environment 992
The participating States, 992
Aims of co-operation 992
Fields of co-operation 992
Control of air-pollution 992
Water pollution control and fresh water utilization 992
Protection of the marine environment 992
Land utilization and soils 993
Nature conservation and nature reserves 993
Improvement of environmental conditions in areas of human settlement 993
Fundamental research, monitoring, forecasting and assessment of environ-ment changes 993
Legal and administrative measures 993
Forms and methods of co-operation 993
6. Co-operation in other areas 994
Development of transport 994
Promotion of tourism 994
Economic and social aspects of migrant labour 995
Training of personnel 996
Questions Relating to Security and Co-Operation in the
Mediterranean 996
Co-Operation in Humanitarian and other Fields
1. Human Contacts 997
(a) Contacts and Regular Meetings on the Basis of Family Ties 998
(b) Reunification of Families 998
(c) Mariage between Citizens of Different States 998
(d) Travel for Personal or Professional Reasons 998
(e) Improvement of Conditions for Tourism on an Individual or Collective Basis 999
(f) Meetings among Young People 999
(g) Sport 999
(h) Expansion of Contacts 999
2. Information 999
(a) Improvement of the Circulation of, Access to, and Exchange of Infor-mation 1000
(i) Oral Information 1000
(ii) Printed Information 1000
(iii) Filmed and Broadcast Information 1000
(b) Co-operation in the Field of Information 1000
(c) Improvement of Working Conditions for Journalists 1001
3. Co-operation and Exchanges in the Field of Culture 1001
Extension of Relations 1002
Mutual Knowledge 1002
Exchanges and Dissemination 1002
Access 1003
Contacts and Co-operation 1004
Fields and Forms of Co-operation 1004
4. Co-operation and Exchanges in the Field of Education 1005
(a) Extension of Relations 1005
(b) Access and Exchanges 1005
(c) Science 1006
(d) Foreign Languages and Civilizations 1006
(e) Teaching Methods 1007
Follow-up to the Conference 1008
Concluding Document of the Vienna Meeting of Representatives
of the Participating States of the Conference on
Security and Co-Operation in Europe, Held on the
Basis of the Provisions of the Final Act Relating
to the Follow-up to the Conference (1986) 1009
Questions Relating to Security in Europe 1010
Principles 1010
Confidence-and Security-Building Measures and certain aspects
of Security and Disarmament in Europe Stockholm Conference:
Assessment of Progress Achieved
New efforts for security and disarmament in Europe 1014
Negotiations on confidence and security-building measures 1014
Negotiation on conventional armed forces in Europe 1015
Science and Technology 1017
Environment 1017
Co-operation in other areas 1019
Questions relating to security and co-operation in the Mediterranean 1020
Co-operation in Humanitarian and other fields 1020
Human Contacts 1021
Information 1023
Co-operation and Exchanges in the field of Culture 1024
Co-operation and exchanges in the field of Education 1025
Human Dimension of the CSCE 1025
Follow-up to the Conference 1026
Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference
on the Human Dimension of the Csce (1990) 1027
Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990) 1036
A New Era of Democracy, Peace and Unity 1036
Human Rights, Democracy and Rule of Law 1036
Economic Liberty and Responsibility 1037
Friendly Relations among Participating States 1037
Security 1038
Unity 1038
The CSCE and the World 1038
Guidelines for the Future
Human Dimension 1038
Security 1039
Economic Co-operation 1039
Environment 1040
Culture 1041
Migrant Workers 1041
Mediterranean 1041
Non-governmental Organizations 1041
New Structures and Institutions of the Csce Process 1041
Document of the Moscow Meeting of the Conference
on the Human Dimension of the Csce (1991) 1042
Prague Document on Further Development of
Csce Institutions and Structures (1992) 1051
Prague Document on further development of CSCE Institutions 1051
I. Overview and co-ordination 1052
II. Political consultations 1052
III. Human dimension 1052
IV. Safeguarding human rights, democracy and the rule of law 1053
I. Economic Co-operation 1053
VI. Crisis management and conflict prevention instruments 1053
Conflict Prevention Centre 1053
VII. Parliamentary Assembly 1054
VIII. Non-Governmental Organizations 1054
IX. CSCE relationship with international organizations 1054
X. Relations with non-participating States 1055
XI. Financial arrangements of the CSCE and cost-effectiveness 1055
Csce Helsinki Document (1992) 1055
Helsinki Summit Declaration
Promises and problems of change 1055
The CSCE and the management of change 1057
Helsinki Decisions 1059
I. Strengthening Csce Institutions and Structures 1059
Meetings of Heads of State or Govern-ment 1059
Review conferences 1059
CSCE Council 1059
Committee of senior officials 1059
Assistance to the Chairman-in-Office 1060
Troika 1060
Ad hoc steering groups 1060
Personal representatives 1060
High Commissioner on national minorities 1060
Other institutions and structures 1060
Implementation reviews 1060
Communications 1061
II. CSCE HIGH COMMISSIONER ON NATIONAL MINORITIES 1061
Mandate 1061
Profile, appointment, support 1061
Early warning 1061
Provision of early warning 1062
Early action 1062
Accountability 1062
Sources of information about national minority issues 1062
Parties directly concerned 1063
Conditions for travel by the High Commissioner 1063
High Commissioner and involvement of experts 1063
Budget 1063
III. EARLY WARNING, CONFLICT PREVENTION AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT (IN-CLUDING FACT-FINDING AND RAPPORTEUR MISSIONS AND CSCE PEACE-KEEPING), PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES 1063
Early warning, conflict prevention and crisis management (including fact-finding and rapporteur missions and CSCE peace-keeping) 1063
Early warning and preventive action 1064
Political management of crisis 1064
Instruments of conflict prevention and crisis management 1064
Fact-finding and rapporteur missions 1064
CSCE peacekeeping 1065
Chain of command 1066
Head of Mission 1066
Financial arrangements 1066
Co-operation with regional and transatlantic organizations 1066
Peaceful settlement of disputes 1067
IV. Relations with
International Organizations, Relations when Non-Par-
ticipating States, Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOS) 1067
Relations with international organizations 1067
Relations with non-participating Mediterranean States 1067
Relations with non-participating States 1068
Increasing openness of CSCE activities promoting understanding of the CSCE, expanding the role of NGOs 1068
I. Csce Forum for Security Co-Operation 1068
Objectives 1069
Programme for immediate action 1070
Area of application 1070
Constitution and organization of the Forum 1070
Procedures 1070
1. The Special Committee 1070
2. The Consultative Committee 1070
Form of commitments 1071
Verification 1071
Conference services 1071
Programme for immediate action 1071
A. Arms Control, Disarmament and Confidence and Security-Building 1071
1. Harmonization of obligations concerning arms control, disarma-ment and confidence-and security-building 1071
2. Development of the Vienna Document 1992 1071
3. The further enhancement of stability and confidence 1071
4. Global exchange of military information 1071
5. Co-operation in respect of non-proliferation 1071
6. Regional measures 1072
B. Security Enhancement and Co-operation 1072
7. Force planning 1072
8. Co-operation in defence conversion 1072
9. Co-operation in respect of non-proliferation 1072
10. Development of provisions on military co-operation and contacts 1072
11. Regional security issues 1072
12. Security enhancement consultations 1072 Conflict prevention 1072
13. Relevant techniques 1072
14. Co-operation in the field of verification 1072
VI. The Human Dimension 1072
Framework for monitoring compliance with CSCE commitments and for promoting co-operation in the Human Dimension 1073
Enhanced role of the ODIHR 1073
Human Dimension Mechanism 1073
Implementation 1074
Implementation meetings on Human Dimension issues 1074
CSCE Human Dimension seminars 1074
Enhanced commitments and co-operation in the Human Dimension 1075
National minorities 1075
Indigenous populations 1075
Tolerance and non-discrimination 1075
Migrant workers 1075
Refugees and displaced persons 1076
International humanitarian law 1076
Democracy at a local and regional level 1076
Nationality 1076
Capital punishment 1077
Free media 1077
Education 1077
Compilation of Human Dimension commitments 1077
Domestic implementation guidelines 1077
VII. Economic Co-operation 1077
Economic Forum 1079
Mandate 1079
Organization 1079
Functions 1079
Indicative Agenda for the First Meeting
of the Economic Forum
Indicative Agenda for the First Meeting of the Economic Forum 1079
1. Opening 1079
2. Discussion items 1079
3. Consideration of proposals for topics for seminars in 1993 1080
4. Dates and agenda for the next meeting of the economic forum 1080
VIII. Environment 1080
IX. The CSCE and Regional and Trans-frontier Co-operation 1081
X. Mediterranean 1081
XI. Programme of Co-ordinated Support for Recently Admitted Participating States 1082
Abbreviations 1082
APPENDIX XXVII
UNITED NATIONS WORLD CONFERENCES ON
HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS
The Proclamation of Teheran (1968) 1084
World Conference on Human Rights—The Vienna
Declaration and Programme of Action (1993) 1086
II
A. Increased Co-ordination on Human Rights within the United Nations System 1092
Resources 1092
Centre for Human Rights 1093
Adaptation and strengthening of the United Nations machinery for human rights, including the question of the establishment of a United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 1093
B. Equality, Dignity and Tolerance 1093
1. Racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and other forms of intolerance 1093
2. Persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities 1094
Indigenous people 1094
Migrant workers 1094
3. The equal status and human rights of women 1095
4. The rights of the child 1096
5. Freedom from torture 1096
Enforced disappearances 1097
6. The rights of the disabled person 1097
C. Co-operation, Development and Strengthening of Human Rights 1097
D. Human Rights Education 1098
E. Implementation and Monitoring Methods 1099
F. Follow-up to the World Conference on Human Rights 1100