DR. DURGA DAS BASU’S
COMMENTARY ON
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
EIGHTH EDITION, 2008
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 3
PART III
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (CONTD.)
Art. 20 Protection in respect of conviction for offence 2945
1. Scope of Art. 20 2947
2. Clause (1)—Other Constitutions 2947
(A) U.S.A. 2947
(B) U.K. 2949
(C) Dominions 2951
— Australia 2951
— Canada 2952
(D) Eire 2952
(E) Japan 2952
(F) Government of India Act, 1935. 2952
3. International Charters 2952
— Universal Declaration 2952
— Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 2952
4. India 2953
— Scope of Cl. (1): Prohibition of retroactive criminal laws 2953
(I) No Conviction under Retroactive Law 2954
— Applicability to law of proce-dure 2956
(A) U.S.A. 2957
(B) India. 2958
— What is a continued offence? 2959
— Offence 2960
— Laws in force 2961
— Converse case of law making lawful an act which was an of-fence 2962
(II) The Penalty not to be made Higher by Retroactive Legislation 2963
— Penalty 2965
— ‘Law in force’ 2966
5. Clause (2)—Other Constitutions 2967
(A) U.S.A. 2967
(B) U.K. 2969
(C) Japan. 2972
(D) Bangladesh 2972
(E) Government of India Act, 1935 2972
— Cr. P.C., 1973 2972
6. International Charters 2973
— Convent on Civil and Political Rights 2973
7. India 2973
— Scope of Cl. (2): Bar against double prosecution and punishment 2973
— Guarantee in Art. 20(2) is narrower than the corresponding American doctrine and the plea of autrefois acquit 2976
— ‘Prosecuted and punished’ 2977
— ‘Same offence’ 2981
— ‘More than once’ 2986
— The principle of res judicata in criminal pro-ceedings 2986
— Applicability of Art. 20(2) to service matters 2988
8. Clause (3)—Other Constitutions 2989
(A) U.K. 2989
(B) U.S.A. 2990
(C) Japan 2996
9. International Charters 2996
— Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 2996
10. India 2997
— Cl. (3): Rationality of the immunity against self-incrimination 2997
— Scope of Cl. (3) 3002
— To which persons the immunity extends 3005
— Applicability to corporations 3005
— Whether available to a witness 3005
(A) U.S.A. 3005
(B) India. 3006
— In what proceedings the immunity under Art. 20(3) may be claimed 3006
— Accused of an offence 3007
— What is an ‘offence’ under Art. 20(3) 3009
— Stage from which the protection is available 3010
A. Formal accusation 3011
B. Accusation normally resulting in prose-cution 3012
— Cr. P. C., 1973 3013
— Companies Act, 1956 3015
— Customs Act, 1962 3017
— Constitutionality of s. 176, Criminal Procedure Code, 1973; 54A, Calcutta Police Act, 1866 3018
— ‘Compelled’ when is a person ‘compelled’ to be a witness 3019
— ‘To be a witness’ 3023
— Whether the accused can be a witness on his own behalf 3024
I. The accused as a witness 3024
(A) U.K. 3024
(B) US.A. 3025
(C) India 3025
II. Examination of the accused 3025
(A) U.K. 3025
(B) India 3025
— Whether the silence of the accused can be the subject of comment 3027
(A) U.S.A. 3027
(B) U.K. 3028
(C) India 3028
— To what kinds of evidence the immunity ex-tends 3030
— Protection against self-incriminatory statements out of Court 3031
— Search and Seizure 3032
(A) U.K. 3032
(B) U.S.A. 3034
(C) Japan 3036
(D) India 3036
— Constitutionality of Sec. 91, Cr. P.C., 1973 (Sec. 94 of the Code of 1898) 3040
— Constitutionality of Sec. 93 of the Cr. P. C. 1973 (Sec. 96 of the Code of 1898) 3041
— Constitutionality of wire-tapping and intercep-tion of messages 3042
(A) U.S.A 3042
(B) U.K. 3044
(C) India 3045
— Whether accused can be compelled to exhibit his body 3045
(A) U.S.A. 3045
(B) U.K. 3046
(C) India 3046
— Whether an accused can be compelled to give thumb-impression or specimen writing for comparison 3047
(A) U.S.A. 3047
(B) U. K. 3048
(C) India 3048
— Admissibility of material evidence obtained from the person of the accused 3050
(A) U.S.A. 3050
(B) Canada 3052
(C) India 3052
— Coerced or involuntary confession 3054
(A) U.S.A. 3054
(B) U.K. 3056
(C) India 3056
— Use of retracted confession 3060
— Constitutionality of Sec. 27 of the Evidence Act 3060
— Statements made to the Police 3061
— Power of the Police to examine, under Sec. 161, Cr. P.C., a person who becomes accused subsequently 3062
— Who is to decide whether the immunity is available 3062
(A) U.K. 3062
(B) U.S.A. 3063
(C) India 3063
— Effect of contravention of Art. 20(3) 3064
— Whether a Fundamental Right may be waived 3065
(A) U.S.A. 3065
(B) India 3066
(i) Art. 14 3069
(ii) Arts. 15-16 3069
(iii) Arts. 17-18 3071
(iv) Art. 19 3071
(v) Art. 20(1) 3072
(vi) Art. 20(2) 3072
(vii) Art. 20(3) 3072
(viii) Arts. 21-22 3075
(ix) Arts. 23-24 3075
(xi) Arts. 29-30 3075
(xiii) Art. 32 3076
Art. 21 Protection of life and personal liberty 3077
1. Other Constitutions 3078
(A) U.K. 3078
Personal liberty guaranteed against the Execu-tive but not against the Legislature 3079
(B) U.S.A. 3082
— Due Process 3082
— Application to criminal proceedings 3084
I. Procedural Due Process 3084
II. Substantive Due Process 3092
What is the concept of “Substantive Due Process”? 3095
Habeas Corpus 3097
(C) Eire 3098
(D) West Germany 3098
(E) Japan 3098
(F) Canada 3099
(G) Bangladesh: Art. 32 3099
(H) Pakistan 3099
— Art. 9. Right to Life and Liberty 3099
(I) Nepal 3100
2. International Charters 3100
Universal Declaration 3100
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 3100
European Convention 3101
3. India 3102
— Scope of Art. 21 3102
— Review Commission Recommendations 3104
— Rights against torture and inhuman, degrading and cruel treatment and punishment 3104
— Right to compensation for being illegally de-prived of one’s right to life or liberty 3105
— Right to travel abroad and return to one’s coun-try 3105
— Right to Privacy 3105
— Right to Work 3105
— Arts. 14, 19 and 21 3107
— Arts. 21 and 22 3108
— Arts. 21 and 33: Applicability to the Armed Forces 3108
— Arts. 21 and 359 3108
— Object of Art. 21 3108
— Persons 3108
— Deprived 3109
— Life 3111
— Civil Liberties 3112
— Human Rights and Civil Liberties: Inextricably Linked 3112
— What is privacy 3138
— Life and Unborn Child 3141
— Personal Liberty 3144
— U.S.A. 3145
— India 3146
— Procedure established by law 3151
— Established by law 3156
— Meaning of law 3161
— Whether a law made under Art. 21 is subject to other fundamental rights included in Part III 3164
— Gopalan on the wane 3166
— Reasonableness of a penal law: Arts. 19(1)(d) and 21 3171
— Free legal aid 3176
— Investigation proceeding 3178
— Right to speedy trial 3179
— U.S.A. 3179
— India 3179
— Quantum of delay 3183
— The present position: Interplay of Arts. 14, 19 and 21 3187
— Capital Punishment, constitutionality of 3187
(A) U.S.A. 3195
(B) India 3197
— Art. 14 3197
— Art. 19 3198
— Delay in execution of death sentence: effect of 3202
— Fundamental rights of a prisoner 3204
— Contravention of Art. 21 by a judicial order 3211
— Court’s right to interfere when a person is de-prived of liberty otherwise than according to procedure established by law 3212
— Protective relief 3214
— Award of compensation 3215
— Construction of Penal Statutes 3223
(A) In normal times 3223
(B) In emergencies 3227
— Scope for Control of the Executive 3228
(A) U.S.A 3228
(B) India 3229
— Onus where imprisonment or detention is chal-lenged 3232
— What constitutes want of ‘good faith’ 3233
— Proclamation of Emergency and Arts. 21-22 3237
— Effect of suspension of Art. 21 under Art. 359 3238
— Amendment of 1978: Art. 21 can no longer be suspended by an Order under Art. 359(1) 3239
— Additional guarantees to safeguard life and li-berty, under other Constitutions 3240
— Trial by ‘Ordinary Courts’ 3241
— U.S.A. 3241
— Eire 3241
— Trial by jury 3242
— U.S.A. 3242
— India 3242
— Trial in public 3242
— U.S.A. 3242
— India. 3242
— U.K. 3244
— India 3244
— Right to speedy trial. 3244
— U.S.A. 3244
— India 3245
— Right to notice of charge 3249
— U.S.A. 3249
— India 3249
— Rights to confront witnesses. 3250
— U.S.A 3250
— India 3250
— Right to process for producing defence wit-nesses 3251
— U.S.A. 3251
— India 3251
— Right to counsel for defence 3252
— Immunity from excessive bail. U.S.A 3253
— India 3253
— Immunity from cruel punishment : U.S.A. 3253
— Japan 3255
— India 3255
— Immunity from Bill of Attainder, U.S.A. 3255
— India 3255
— Right to Privacy 3255
— U.S.A. 3256
— India 3259
— Other Rights under Article 21 3260
— Fundamental rights of prisoners 3261
— International Charters 3261
— U.S.A. 3262
— West Germany 3265
— India 3265
—
A.D.M. v. Shukla 3266
Art. 21A Right to Education 3268
Art. 22 Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases 3270
1. Arts. 21 and 22 3273
2. Arts. 14 and 22 3274
3. Arts. 19 and 22 3274
4. Scope of Art. 22: Safeguards against arbitrary arrest and detention 3274
(A) Ordinary Law 3274
(B) Law of preventive detention 3275
5. Clause (1)—Other Constitutions 3275
(A) U.S.A. 3275
(B) England 3279
(C) Japan 3281
(D) West Germany 3281
6. International Charters 3281
— International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 3281
— European Convention 3282
7. India 3282
— Scope of Cls. (l)-(2) 3282
— ‘As soon as may be’ 3286
— Can the failure to communicate grounds of ar-rest be condoned under any circumstances? 3287
— ‘The right to consult legal practitioner’ 3289
— Constitutionality of statutes barring appearance of lawyers 3289
— Right to be defended by a legal practitioner 3289
— Art. 22(1) of the Constitution and Sec. 304 3292
— Arts. 21 and 22(1): Duty of court to inform accused of his right 3292
8. Clause (2)—Other Constitutions 3293
(A) U.K. 3293
(B) Bangladesh 3293
(C) Nigeria 3293
(D) Pakistan 3293
9. International Charters 3293
(A) Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 3293
— Covenant, 1966 3293
(B) European Convention on Human Rights, 1953 3294
— European Convention, 1953 3294
— American Convention of Human Rights 3294
10. India 3294
— Scope of Cl. (2): Right to be produced in court of Magistrate 3294
— Right to be produced before the nearest Magi-strate 3295
— Whether the rights in Art. 21(1)-(2) extend to arrests under warrant 3297
11. Clause (3)—Other Constitutions 3299
(A) U.K. 3299
(B) Australia 3300
(C) Eire 3300
(D) U.S.A. 3301
(E) Constitution of Malaysia, 1957 3301
(F) Constitution of Nigeria, 1979 3301
(G) Constitution of Zimbabwe, 1979 3301
(H) Constitution of Uganda, 1967 3301
(I) Constitution of Zambia, 1973 3301
(J) Constitution of Kenya, 1969 3301
12. International Charters 3302
(A) Universal Declaration, 1948 3302
(B) Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 3302
(C) European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 3302
13. India 3303
— Enemy Aliens and detenus 3303
— Enemy Aliens 3303
— The Place of Preventive Detention in a Chapter on Fundamental Rights 3304
— Preventive detention 3306
— Grounds for preventive detention 3308
(A) England 3308
(B) Australia 3309
(C) U.S.A. 3309
(D) Ghana 3310
(E) India 3310
— History of the Law of Preventive Detention in India 3311
— Pre-Constitution India 3311
— Under the Constitution 3311
— P. D. Act 3312
— MISA 3312
— COFEPOSA 3313
— State Acts 3314
— Preventive Detention and Criminal Prosecution 3314
— Past activities 3316
— Safeguards relating to Preventive Detention 3316
— Ambit of the court’s jurisdiction in cases of detention 3318
— Validity of the law 3318
— Against the law 3318
— Art. 19 3319
— Art. 21 3320
— Validity of the order 3320
— Against the order 3320
— Art. 14 3321
— Art. 21. 3321
— Non-application of mind 3323
— Under Art. 22 3326
— What the court cannot do in an application un-der Art. 32 or 226 against an order of preventive detention 3326
— When is an order mala fide 3328
— Onus where mala fides alleged 3329
— Single instance. 3330
— Personal affidavit of detaining authority when necessary 3333
— Bona fides of order founded on past activities of detenu 3334
— Order of detention against person in custody 3338
— Summary 3340
— Preventive Detention after discharge or acquittal in a criminal prosecution 3342
— Effects of parallel proceedings upon the right to representation 3343
— Effect of unexplained delay in taking action 3344
— Summary of law as to mala fides 3347
14. Clause (4) 3348
— Cl. (4). Scope of Advisory Board 3348
— Where Reference to the Board obligatory 3352
— Jurisdiction of the Board 3352
— Proviso to Cl. (4)(a) 3353
15. Clause (5) 3353
— Cl. (5): The Right of representation 3353
— Right to grounds and to make representation 3354
A. Communication of the Grounds 3355
— Detenu must understand lan-guage of grounds 3359
— ‘Grounds’ and ‘facts’: what is to be communi-cated 3361
— Supply of documents. 3366
— ‘As soon as may be’ 3367
B. Representation and consideration thereof 3370
— Representation received after con-firmation of the order of detention 3376
— Delay in considering the represen-tation 3377
— Complaint of delay in considera-tion of representation by Govern-ment 3380
— What is a ‘vague’ ground 3380
— Instances of vague grounds 3382
— What is an ‘irrelevant’ ground 3383
(i) ‘Defence’ 3383
(ii) ‘Foreign affairs’ 3383
(iii) ‘Security of India’ 3383
(iv) ‘Security of a State’ 3383
(v) ‘Public order’ 3384
(vi) ‘Maintenance of supplies and services essential to the community’ 3385
— Instances of relevant grounds 3387
— Non-existence of ground 3389
— When one of several grounds is irrelevant, non-existent or vague 3390
— Effect of supplying vague grounds 3391
— Judicial Review or interference of pre-execution or pre-arrest stage 3392
16. Clause (6) 3393
— Cl. (6): Discretion of authority not to disclose facts 3393
17. Clause (7) 3394
— Cl. (7): Power of Parliament 3394
— Cls. (4) and (7) 3394
— Cl. (7)(a): ‘Circumstances ... and the class or classes of cases’ 3394
— Cl. (7)(b): ‘Maximum period’ 3395
— Suspension of the safeguards in Art. 22 in Emergency and effects thereof 3396
— Applicability to Jammu & Kashmir 3397
— The Preventive Detention Law of Jammu & Kashmir 3397
Right Against Exploitation
Art. 23 Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour 3398
1. Clause (1)—Other Constitutions 3399
(A) U.S.A. 3399
(B) Japan 3401
(C) West Germany 3401
2. International Charters 3401
— Universal Declaration. 3401
— Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 3401
— European Convention. 3401
3. India 3402
— Exploitation 3402
— Scope of Cl. (1): Prohibition of traffic in human beings 3402
— Trafficking in Women: A new form of Slavery 3404
— International. 3404
— India. 3404
— ‘Begar’ 3405
— ‘Similar forms of forced labour’ 3405
— Forced labour 3406
— The system of Bonded Labour 3409
— Bonded labour. 3410
— ‘Prohibited’ 3411
— ‘Punishable in accordance with law’ 3411
4. Clause (2) 3412
— Scope of Cl. (2): Compulsory service for public purposes 3412
— ‘Public purposes’ 3412
— Compulsory military service or conscription 3413
(A) England 3413
(B) U.S.A. 3413
(C) Australia 3413
(D) West Germany 3413
(E) India 3414
— Legislation by Parliament 3414
Art. 24 Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. 3414
1. Other Countries 3414
(A) U.S.A. 3414
(B) England 3415
2. International Charters 3415
3. India 3415
— Prohibition of child labour 3415
— ‘Hazardous employment’ 3415
— Existing law 3416
— Legislation by Parliament 3416
— Analogous provisions of the Constitution for the protection of children 3418
— Legislative Power 3418
Right to Freedom of Religion
Art. 25 Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propa-gation of religion 3419
1. Other Constitutions 3420
(A) U.S.A. 3420
(a) Freedom of religious belief 3430
(b) Freedom of practice 3432
(c) Freedom of propagation of religious views 3436
— Summary. 3438
(B) Australia. 3438
(C) Canada 3439
(D) Eire 3440
(E) U.S.S.R. 3440
(F) Fourth and Fifth French Republics 3441
(G) West Germany 3441
(H) Japan 3441
(I) Sri Lanka 3441
(J) England. 3441
(K) Pakistan 3442
(L) Bangladesh 3443
(M) Nepal 3443
2. International Charters 3444
(A) Universal Declaration, 1948 3444
— Universal Declaration. 3444
— Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 3444
(B) Covenant on Civil & Political Rights, 1966 3444
— European Convention. 3444
— European Convention on Human Ri-ghts, 1950 3444
3. India 3445
— Art. 25: Freedom of conscience and religion 3445
4. Clause (1) 3447
— ‘Subject to public order, morality, health’ 3447
— ‘Subject to the other provisions of this Part’ 3451
— Freedom of others as a limitation. 3453
— Religious speech: Arts. 25(1) and 19(1)(a) 3454
— “All persons” 3455
— ‘Equally entitled to’ 3456
— U. K. 3456
— India. 3456
— “Freedom of conscience”: No established reli-gion 3457
— Eire. 3461
— ‘To profess’ 3461
— Right to manifest religion. 3461
— ‘To practise’ 3462
— Right to conduct a religious procession 3468
— ‘To propagate’ 3469
— ‘Religion’ 3472
— Freedom of Religion: Summary 3478
— State’s power to acquire and to tax religious property 3479
— Analogous Provisions 3481
5. Clause (2) 3481
— Scope of Cl. (2): Restrictions upon the freedom of religion 3481
— Sub-cl. (a): Secular activities 3481
— ‘Secular activity’ 3483
— ‘Economic activities’ 3484
— ‘Political activity’ 3484
— Who is to determine whether a particular prac-tice or rite constitutes the essence of a religion or is a mere ‘secular activity’ 3484
— Sub-cl. (b): Social Welfare 3488
— Whether social welfare may override ‘religion’ altogether 3489
— ‘Social Reform’ 3489
— Whether determination by the Legislature as to ‘social reform’ is subject to judicial review 3491
— The status of Personal Law under the Constitu-tion and Common Civil Code 3491
— Art. 44. 3491
— International Law. 3491
— British regime. 3491
— Partition of India. 3492
— Constitution of India. 3494
— Personal law not synonymous nor co-extensive with religion. 3495
— Ambit of religious freedom under the Constitu-tion. 3496
— The Shariat Act. 3497
— Succession. 3497
— Trust Property. 3498
— Marriage. 3499
— Custom as superseding or supplementing per-sonal law applicable to Muslims 3502
— Muslim Personal Law and Art. 44 3502
— ‘Throwing open of Hindu religious institutions’ 3503
— ‘Religious institutions of a public character’ 3504
— Legislative power 3505
— Legislation by Parliament 3506
— Secularism, what it means 3508
— Questions still open 3513
— Uncertainty as to the scope of the doctrine of basic features. 3514
— Whether a political Party may be banned with-out amendment of Constitution. 3515
— Points of distinction between the American and Indian Constitutions relating to religion 3515
— Rights of Majority Hindus 3517
— Is there a fundamental right to convert another person against his will ? 3517
— History of the controversy. 3518
— Freedom of ‘conscience’. 3519
— International Charters. 3519
— Right to propagate. 3521
— Legislative competence. 3522
Art. 26 Freedom to manage religious affairs 3522
1. Other Constitutions 3523
(A) U.S.A. 3523
(B) Eire 3523
2. India 3523
— Arts. 25-26 3523
— ‘Denomination’ 3524
— ‘Religious denomination or section thereof’ 3525
— Art. 26: Rights of religious denomination 3525
— Effects of valid divestment 3527
— Pleading 3527
— Arts. 26 and 30(1) 3527
— Cl. (a): Freedom to establish and maintain reli-gious institutions 3528
— Cl. (b). Right to manage own affairs in matters of religion 3529
— ‘Matters of religion’ 3532
— The right to excommunicate 3533
— Arts. 25(2)(b) and 26
(b) 3537
— Cl. (c): Right to own property 3538
— Cl. (d): Right to administer property in accor-dance with law 3539
— Cls. (b) and
(d) 3541
— Liability to taxation 3541
— Property rights of the head of a Hindu religious endowment and the power of the State to im-pose restrictions thereupon 3542
Art. 27 Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion 3545
1. Other Constitutions 3546
(A) U.S.A. 3546
(B) Switzerland 3547
(C) Japan 3547
(D) U.K. 3547
2. India 3547
— Freedom from payment of taxes for the promo-tion of any particular religion 3547
— ‘Specifically appropriated’ 3550
— Providing for education of a particular religious community 3550
— State expenditure to commemorate religious leaders as national leaders 3550
— Who to determine what is the basis of the cul-tural heritage. 3550
— ‘Person’ 3553
Art. 28 Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions 3554
1. International Charters 3554
— International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 3554
— American Convention on Human Rights 3554
2. Other Constitutions 3555
(A) U.S.A. 3555
(B) Eire 3555
(C) Japan 3555
(D) West Germany 3555
(E) U.K. 3555
3. India 3556
— Art. 28, scope of 3556
— Cl. (1). Religious instruction in educational institutions 3557
— ‘Religious instruction’ 3558
— ‘Wholly’ 3559
— Cl. (2): Institutions administered by the State under endowment or trust 3559
— Cl. (3): State-aided or recognised institutions 3559
Cultural and Educational Rights
Art. 29 Protection of interests of minorities 3560
1. Amendment and Effects thereof 3560
2. International Charters 3561
—
I.C.P.R. Art. 27. 3561
3. Other Constitutions 3561
— U.S.A. 3561
4. India 3562
— Scope of Arts. 29-30 3562
— Clause (1) 3562
— Scope of Cl. (1) 3562
— Arts. 29(1) and 30(1). 3562
— Protection of cultural rights of minori-ties 3563
— Right to conserve community language 3564
— Clause (2) 3566
— No discrimination as to admission in education-al institutions 3566
— ‘Aid’ 3567
— ‘Only of religion, race, caste, language’ 3567
— Arts. 15(1) and 29(2) 3570
— Arts. 15(4) and 29(2) : Special Provisions for backward classes and Scheduled Castes and Tribes 3571
— Arts. 29(2) and 25 3572
Art. 30 Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions 3573
1. Other Constitutions 3573
(A) Eire 3573
(B) Canada 3574
2. International Charters 3574
— Declaration on the Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities 3574
— Adopted by General Assembly Resolution 47/135 of 18th December, 1992. 3574
3. India 3577
— Cl. (1). Right of minorities to establish educa-tional institutions 3577
— Scope of Art. 30(1) 3432
— Conditions for the application of Cl. (1) 3579
— Ambit of the right conferred by Cl. (1) 3581
— ‘Minority’ 3582
— ‘The right to establish’ 3586
— ‘The right to administer’ 3587
— ‘Of their choice’ 3590
— The right to manage 3591
— Limits of the right to administer 3595
— Regulations relating to right to admit students 3598
— Regulations as to selection, training, conditions of service, of teaching 3602
— Linguistic Minority 3605
— Non-interference in matters of policy 3607
— Clause (1A) 3608
— Right to compensation of a minority educational institution in case of compulsory acquisition of its property 3608
— Scope for State regulation by way of recogni-tion or aid 3609
— Summary. 3614
— Control of a University over minority institu-tions 3615
— Can rights under Arts. 29-30 he waived? 3617
— Arts. 30(1) and 19 3618
— Arts. 30(1) and 28(3) 3619
— Arts. 30(1) and 29 3619
— Art. 30(1) and Entry 42, List III 3620
— Art. 30(1) and the Directive Principles 3621
— Arts. 30(1) and 351 3621
— Clause (2) 3622
— Object of Cl. (2): No discrimination in granting aid 3622
Art. 31 Compulsory Acquisition of Property. [Omitted by the Constitution (44th Amendment) Act, 1978, together with the preceding subject-heading ‘Right to Property’] 3623
1. History of Amendments 3623
2. Amendment not retrospective 3623
3. The doctrine of Eminent Domain 3626
4. Changes in the right to property 3629
5. A history of the right to property under the Constitution of India 3630
I. The Constitution of 1949. 3630
II. Amendments up to the 42nd Act, 1976. 3631
The 25th Amendment. 3631
III. The 42nd Amendment, 1976. 3632
IV. The 44th Amendment, 1978. 3632
Vestiges of the right to property, and comments thereon. 3633
6. History of the relation between Arts. 31 and 19(1)(f) 3637
— Chiranjit Lal. 3638
— Kochuni. 3639
— Sitabati. 3641
— Bachan Singh. 3641
7. Cl. (2B) in the negative as regards Art. 31(2). 3642
— Present position anomalous. 3642
Saving of Certain Laws
Art. 31A Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc 3643
1. Amendments 3645
2. A short history of Arts. 31A to 31C 3645
— Art. 31 in 1949, and Govt. of India Act, 1935. 3645
— Art. 31(2). 3645
— As amended in 1951. 3646
— Arts. 31A-B introduced. 3647
— Art. 31—Cl. (2A). 3648
— Kameshwar. 3652
— Bela Banerjee. 3652
— Amendments of 1964. 3652
— Amendments of 1971: 25th Amendment. 3653
— 27th Amendment: Art. 31C inserted. 3653
— Amendments of 1975. 3653
— Amendments of 1976: 40th Amendment. 3653
— 42nd Amendment: Art. 31 enlarged. 3653
3. History of Relation between Cls. (1) and (2) of Art. 31 3653
4. Object of Art. 31A 3656
— Object of further amendment by the Constitu-tion (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955 3656
— Object of further amendment by the Constitu-tion (Seven-teenth Amendment) Act, 1964 3657
— Object of amendment made by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978 3657
— Arts. 31A-31B 3657
— ‘Notwithstanding anything in Art. 13’ 3658
— ‘Law’ 3658
— Protection of amending Acts 3658
5. Sub-cl. (1)(a): Scope of 3659
— ‘Acquisition by the State of any estate or of any rights therein’ 3661
— Ancillary measures may he included 3662
— ‘Estate’ 3663
— ‘Rights therein’ 3663
— ‘Extinguishment of such rights’ 3664
— ‘Modification of any such rights’ 3666
— ‘Extinguishment or modification of rights in an estate’ 3667
6. Sub-cls. (b)-(d) 3668
7. Sub-cl. (b): ‘Taking over of management of any proper-ty’ 3668
8. Sub-cl. (c) Amalgamation of corporations 3670
— ‘Corporations’ 3670
9. Sub-cl. (d): Extinction or modification of rights of directors or shareholders etc. 3670
10. Sub-cl. (e): Extinction or modification of rights under mining leases 3670
— ‘Winning any mineral’ 3671
— 1st Proviso 3671
— 2nd Proviso 3671
— ‘Land....... under his personal cultivation’ 3676
— ‘Ceiling limit’ 3676
— ‘Law’ 3676
— ‘Compensation market value thereof’ 3676
— Some Acts held violative of the 2nd Proviso 3676
— Punjab Land Reforms Act, 1973.—Ss. 3(10); 4(2); Prov. (ii); s. 4(4)(b). 3676
— Kerala Land Reforms Act, 1964.—S. 85. 3677
11. Cl. (2)(a): ‘Estate’ 3677
— ‘Same meaning as....... in the existing law relating to land tenures’ 3680
— Meaning of “Jagir” 3680
— Sub-cl. (i): ‘Jagir or other similar grant’ 3681
— ‘Janmam right’ 3682
— Sub-cl. (ii): ‘Ryotwari settlement’ 3682
— Sub-cl. (iii): ‘Waste land’, etc. 3683
12. Cl. (2)(b): ‘Rights in relation to an estate’ 3684
— ‘Other intermediary’ 3684
— Effects of vesting of an estate in the State after acquisition 3685
— Pleas still open under Art. 31A 3685
— Applicability to Jammu & Kashmir 3686
— Constitutionality of some Acts under Art. 31A 3686
(A) Acts held protected by Art. 31A 3686
(B) Acts held not protected by Art. 31A 3687
Art. 31B Validation of certain Acts and Regulations 3688
1. Amendment 3688
2. Effects of Amendment 3688
3. Arts. 31A-31B 3689
4. Object of Art. 31B 3689
5. Scope of Art. 31B 3690
6. Constitutionality of Art. 31B 3690
— ‘Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule’ 3691
— Power to amend the Acts specified in the Ninth Schedule 3693
— Applicability of Jammu & Kashmir 3694
Art. 31C Saving of Laws giving effect to directive principles 3694
1. Amendments 3695
2. History behind Art. 31C 3696
3. Scope of Art. 31C 3697
4. Constitutionality of Art. 31C 3698
5. Conditions for applicability of s. 31C 3699
6. Declaration by Legislature not conclusive 3700
— ‘Principles specified in Cl. (b) or
(c) of Art. 39’ 3700
7. Art. 39
(b). 3580
— ‘And no law containing....such policy’ 3703
8. Pleas not barred by Art. 31C 3704
9. Applicability to Jammu & Kashmir 3705
Art. 31D Saving of laws in respect of anti-national activities [Inserted by the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976, s. 5 (w.e.f. 3-1-1977) and repealed by the Constitution (43rd Amend-ment) Act, 1978, s. 2 (w.e.f. 13-4-1978)] 3705
Right to Constitutional Remedies
Art. 32 Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part 3705
1. Object of Art. 32 : Enforcement of Fundamental rights 3707
2. International Charters 3709
— Universal Declaration. 3709
— International Covenant. 3709
— European Convention. 3709
3. Clause (1) 3710
4. Other Constitutions 3710
(A) U.K.. 3710
(B) U.S.A. 3710
(C) Japan 3710
5. India 3711
— Scope of Art. 32 3711
— Importance of constitutional remedies under the Constitution of India. 3711
— Supreme Court. 3713
— Effects of the guarantee 3714
— Political question. 3717
— Amplitude of Supreme Court’s jurisdiction un-der Art. 32 3720
— What the Court would not do under Art. 32 3724
— Enforcement of Fundamental Rights by Su-preme Court 3734
— Duty to enforce fundamental right. 3738
— Where the Supreme Court will not interfere under Art. 32 3744
— Interference with contractual rights and obliga-tions 3745
— Art. 32 and Privileges of the Legislature 3749
— The 42nd and the 44th Amendments. 3750
— Art. 32 and Preventive Detention 3753
— Application under Art. 32 against an order of taxation 3755
— Art. 32 and Service matters 3756
— Art. 32 and Armed Forces 3759
— The power of Judicial Review 3759
(a) Minimal scrutiny 3764
(b) Strict Scrutiny (Preferred Freedoms Approach) 3764
(c) Intermediate Scrutiny 3764
— Judicial Review: a basic fea-ture’. 3774
— Scope of power to determine constitutionality of a law 3778
— Question of legislative competence of impugned law 3782
— New Dimension of Art. 32 3782
— Judicial Review and Human Right 3784
— Territorial Jurisdiction of Supreme Court under Art. 32 3664
— How far existence of alternative remedy bars applications under Art. 32 3788
— General grounds for refusing Petition under Art. 32 3790
— Delay and Acquiescence, how far grounds for refusing relief under Art. 32 3791
—
A. Delay : Pre-1970 view. 3791
— Tilok Chand v. Munshi: a critique. 3796
— The present position of the doctrine of laches under the Constitution 3803
— Exceptions to the doctrine of laches and ac-quiescence 3806
— Effect of misrepresentation 3808
— When Petition malicious 3809
— When Petition infructuous 3809
— Who may apply under Art. 32 3812
(A) U.S.A. 3812
(B) India 3818
— Habeas Corpus. 3818
— Quo Warranto. 3819
— Loss of locus standi 3822
— Judicial Activism or Creativity 3823
— Public interest litigation 3830
— Generally 3830
— What is the meaning of PIL? 3831
— What is the effect of introducing public interest litigation? 3833
— Features of Public Interest Litigation 3838
— Locus standi in a Public Interest Litiga-tion 3837
— Withdrawal of Public Interest Litiga-tion 3840
— Pleading in Public Interest Litigation 3840
— Against whom application under Art. 32 lies 3842
— Certiorari jurisdiction over judicial or quasi-judicial decisions 3843
— Whether declaratory relief may be given under Art. 32 3846
— Consequences of grant of a declaration 3848
— How far interim relief can be granted in a peti-tion under Art 32 or 226 3848
— Whether determination of facts possible in a proceeding under Art. 32 3852
— Whether evidence can be taken in a writ pro-ceeding 3854
— Kochunni v. State of Madras. 3855
— Pleading 3856
— Onus 3859
— Counter-affidavit 3862
— Parties to a proceeding under Art. 32 3862
— Practice and Procedure 3864
— Right of intervention of Attorney-General or Advocate-General 3868
— Substitution and Abatement 3868
— Nature of order 3868
— Costs 3869
— Res Judicata 3870
— Compliance with orders of the Supreme Court 3874
— Applications under Arts. 32 and 226 3875
— Arts. 32 and 132-4; 136 3877
— The right under Art. 32 cannot be taken away or abridged by legislation 3878
6. Clause (2)—Other Constitutions 3880
— U.S.A. 3880
— U.K. 3881
7. India 3881
— Scope of Cl. (2) : The Constitutional writs 3881
— Universal Declaration. 3882
— Jurisdiction to issue the writs prior to the Con-stitution 3882
— Scope of Arts. 32 and 226: Jurisdiction of Su-preme Court confined to enforcement of Fun-damental Rights 3884
— Power to issue directions 3891
— Concurrent jurisdiction of Supreme Court and High Court for enforcement of Fundamental Rights 3898
— Concurrent Writ Jurisdiction for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. 3898
— Res Judicata. 3899
8. The writs in particular 3903
— Habeas Corpus 3903
— Habeas Corpus, nature of 3903
— When habeas corpus does not lie 3910
— Scope of order 3912
— Habeas Corpus, applicability of, in particular cases under Art. 32: 3912
I. Contempt of Legislature 3912
II. Member of Parliament, arrest of 3913
III. Preventive Detention 3913
I. Non-constitutional 3913
II. Constitutional 3914
— Unconstitutionality of order of deten-tion for violation Art. 32. 3915
— Mandamus 3920
— Mandamus, nature and object of 3920
— Fundamental rights, enforcement of 3925
— Certiorari 3927
— Art. 14. 3932
— Arts. 15(4), 16(4). 3932
— Art. 21. 3933
— Certiorari jurisdiction over judicial or quasi-judicial decisions 3933
— Application under Art. 32 against an order of taxation 3936
— Art. 32 and Service matters 3936
— Art. 32 and Armed Forces 3939
— Art. 32 and Administrative Tribunal under the Act of 1985 3940
— Certiorari against administrative orders and decisions 3941
— Prohibition 3944
— Applicability of prohibition 3944
— Quo warranto 3947
9. Clause (3)—Other Constitutions 3949
— U.S.A. 3949
10. India 3950
— Power of Parliament to empower other Courts 3950
— Analogous Provisions: Which Court may issue these writs 3950
(i) For the enforcement of the Fundamen-tal Rights 3950
(ii) For other purposes 3950
(iii) Administrative Tribunal 3951
11. Clause (4)—Other Constitutions 3951
(A) U.S.A. 3951
(B) Eire 3951
12. India 3952
— Scope of Cl. (4): Suspension of Fundamental Rights 3952
Art. 32A Constitutional validity of State Laws not to be considered in proceeidngs under Article 32]—[Omitted] 3953
Art. 33 Power to Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to forces 3954
1. Other Constitutions 3955
(A) England 3955
(B) U.S.A. 3957
(C) Eire 3959
2. India 3960
— Scope of Art. 33: Power of Parliament with respect to Armed Forces 3960
— ‘Parliament may by law’ 3962
— Cl. (a): ‘Armed Forces’ 3962
— ‘Legislation by Parliament’ 3963
I. Ineligibility of Women for Enrolment or Employment 3963
II. Rights of freedom of speech and expression, assembly and association 3964
III. Arrest and detention 3964
IV. Successive trials 3965
— Existing laws relating to Armed Forces 3966
— Military Law in India 3966
— Dual position of defence personnel 3968
I. Liabilities 3969
II. Rights 3972
(a) Electoral rights 3972
(b) Pleas available under the ordinary law 3972
— Special privileges of defence personnel 3972
(i) Immunity from attachment 3972
(ii) Immunity from arrest for debt 3972
(iii) Immunity of persons attending courts-martial from arrest 3972
(iv) Immunity from municipal taxation 3972
(v) Right to pay without deductions save those which are ‘authorised’ by statute. 3972
(vi) Priority in respect of litigation 3973
— Privileges under the ordinary law 3973
— Special obligations and dis-abilities of defence personnel 3974
— Courts-martial 3975
— No appeal to the ordinary Courts 3975
— Control of Court-martial through writs 3975
— Jurisdiction to issue the Judicial Writs against Courts-Martials and Military Tribunals 3976
I. Military Tribunal 3976
(A) England 3976
(B) U.S.A. 3976
(C) India 3978
II. Court-martial 3978
(A) England 3978
(B) U.S.A. 3979
(C) India 3980
(I) Certiorari 3981
— Jurisdiction 3981
— Natural Justice 3982
(II) Mandamus 3983
(III) Prohibition 3983
(IV) Habeas Corpus 3983
— Scope of jurisdiction of Supreme Court over Court-martial 3985
— Ordinary action against court-martial 3986
— Cl.(b): ‘Forces charged with the maintenance of public order’ 3988
Art. 34 Restriction on rights conferred by this part while martial law is in force in any area 3989
1. Other Constitutions 3989
(A) England 3989
(B) U.S.A. 3991
(C) France 3992
2. India 3992
— Scope of Art. 34 3992
— Martial Law 3993
— Martial Law and Fundamental Rights 3995
— How martial law may be imposed 3997
— U.K. 3997
— U.S.A. 3998
— India. 3999
A. Prior to the Constitution. 3999
B. Under the Constitution. 4000
— The need for an Act of Indemnity 4002
— Whether habeas corpus can be issued under Art. 32 or 226 against the order of military tri-bunal, during martial law 4004
Art. 35 Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part 4005
1. Other Constitutions 4006
— U.S.A. 4006
2. India 4007
— Cl. (a) : Legislation by Parliament to give effect to Fundamental Rights 4007
— Sub-cl. (i) 4007
— Sub-cl. (ii) 4008
— ‘A State shall not have power.......’ 4008
— Cl. (b): Validity of ‘law in force’ 4008
— ‘Law in force in the territory of India’ 4010
— Applicability of Art. 35 to Jammu & Kashmir 4010
— Effect of Cl. (c) 4010
— Effect of Art. 35A 4011
PART IV
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE
POLICY
Art. 36 Definition 4013
Scope of Art. 36 4013
‘State’ in Part IV 4013
Art. 37 Application of the principles contained in this part 4013
1. Note 4014
2. Other Constitutions 4015
— Eire 4015
— Bangladesh 4016
— Nepal 4016
— Pakistan 4016
— Srilanka 4016
— U.S.S.R. 4016
— China 4017
3. India 4017
— Object of the Directives 4017
— Socialistic pattern of society. 4023
— Trends towards collectivism. 4025
— Utility of the Directives 4025
— In politics. 4026
— Effects of non-justiciability. 4027
— Role of the Courts 4029
A. The Directives as aids for interpretation of the Constitution 4031
— Instances of Directives being used as aid to interpret other provisions of the Constitution. 4031
— Art. 14. 4032
— Art. 19. 4033
— Art. 21. 4035
— Art. 26(c)(d). 4036
— Interpretation of other provisions. 4036
— Arts. 301, 304. 4036
— Art. 371D. 4036
— Legislative Entries. 4037
B. Directives as aid to interpret statutes 4037
— Limits of the doctrine 4041
— Summary. 4042
— ‘Fundamental in the gover-nance of the country’ 4042
— Directives and legislative pow-er. 4044
— “To apply these principles in making laws” 4045
— Fundamental rights and the Directive principles 4046
— Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights had a common origin. 4046
— Nehru Report. 4047
— Report of Sub-Committee of Constitu-ent Assembly. 4047
— Draft Constitution. 4049
— Conflict between Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles: the question of primacy 4050
— Prima facie likelihood of conflict. 4050
— Early view. 4050
— Harmonious construction, to avoid conflict. 4050
— Implication of individual duties from the Directives 4052
— Limit of the doctrine 4053
— Subordinating Fundamental Rights to Directives, through the judicial process 4054
— The landmark of Keshavananda 4054
— Art. 31 A 4056
— Art. 31 B 4056
— Introduction of Art. 31C 4056
— Salvage of judicial review by Keshava-nanda 4057
— 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 4057
— Overall expansion of Art. 31C 4057
— Aftermath : Minerva Mills v. Union of India. 4058
— Latest view 4058
— Recent expansion of the use of the Directives by the Courts 4061
— Indirect enforcement. 4061
— “Principles of Governance. 4064
— Articles of the Constitution Articles of ICESCR 4065
— Justiciability and Enforceability 4065
Art. 38 State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people 4066
1. Other Constitutions 4066
(A) Bangladesh 4067
(B) Bhutan 4067
(C) Pakistan 4067
(D) Sri Lanka 4067
(E) Eire 4067
(F) West Germany 4067
(G) U.S.S.R. 4068
(H) China 4068
2. India 4069
— End of the State under our Constitution 4069
— Social Justice 4070
— Role of the Court 4072
— Cl. (2): Elimination of inequality 4074
Art. 39 Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State 4075
1. Internat1onal Charters 4076
(A) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 4076
(B) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 4076
2. Other Constitutions 4076
(A) German Reich 4076
(B) Bangladesh 4077
(C) Bhutan 4077
(D) Pakistan 4077
(E) Sri Lanka 4078
(F) Eire 4078
(G) French Republic 4078
(H) U.S.S.R. 4078
3. India 4079
— Object of Art. 39 4079
— Cls. (a) : Equality between sexes as to livelih-ood 4080
— Cls. (b)-(c): Distribution of material resources 4081
— Implementation 4082
(A) Agrarian reform 4082
(i) Abolition of Intermediaries 4083
(ii) Protection of tenants-at-will and sub-tenants 4084
(iii) Ceiling on holdings 4084
(B) Nationalisation of industry and busi-ness 4085
— Cl. (b): ‘Material resources’ 4087
— ‘Distributed’ 4088
— Constitutionality of laws implementing Art. 39(b)-(c) 4088
— Cl. (c): Legislative power 4088
— Cl. (d): Equal pay for equal work 4088
— Cl. (e): The evils of prostitution 4092
— Cl. (f): Protection of childhood and youth against exploitation 4093
— The obligation under Art. 39(f), is wider 4093
— Legislation by Parliament. 4094
Art. 39A Equal justice and free legal aid 4096
1. Object behind Art. 39A 4097
2. Judicial application 4098
3. Prior to 1987. 4098
4. Legal aid. 4098
5. Implementation 4101
— After 1987. 4101
I. Criteria for giving legal services 4101
II. Entitlement to legal services 4102
Art. 40 Organisation of village panchayats 4102
1. History of Panchayats in India 4102
— The Object of the Article 4103
— Prior to the Constitution. 4104
— Under the Constitution 4105
— The 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts. 4105
— Special features of the new system. 4106
— A critique of the Party System of election. 4106
— 3-tier System. 4106
— Composition. 4107
— Reservation of seats: for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 4107
— For women. 4107
— Reservation for offices of Chairperson. 4107
— Duration of Panchayat. 4107
— Qualification for membership. 4107
— Powers, authority and responsibilities of Pan-chayats. 4108
— Powers to impose taxes and financial resources. 4108
— Panchayat Finance Commissions 4108
— State Election Commission. 4109
— Bar to interference by Courts in electoral mat-ters. 4109
2. Legislative power 4109
Art. 41 Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases 4109
1. International Charters 4110
2. Other Constitutions 4112
(A) French Republic 4112
(B) U.S.S.R. 4112
(C) China 4112
3. India 4113
— The philosophy behind the right to work 4113
— Right to work cannot be enforced through the Courts, as a fundamental right. 4113
— U.S.S.R. 4114
— How far right to work exists under the Indian Constitution 4114
— Arts. 41 and 45: Duty to secure education 4117
— Other Constitutions 4117
— Eire 4117
— India 4117
— Public assistance in cases of.......... disablement’ 4117
— Existing laws 4118
— Right to education 4118
— Public assistance in old age 4120
Art. 42 Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief 4121
1. International Charters 4121
(A) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 4121
(B) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 4121
2. Other Constitutions 4122
(A) French Republic 4122
(B) U.S.S.R 4122
3. India 4123
— Application 4123
Art. 43 Living wages, etc., for workers 4123
1. International Charters 4124
(A) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 4124
(B) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 4124
2. Other Constitutions 4125
(A) U.S.S.R. 4125
(B) China 4125
3. India 4125
— Application 4125
— ‘A living wage to all workers’ 4126
— ‘Decent standard of life’ 4129
— Social justice 4130
— Existing laws 4131
— Legislation by Parliament 4131
Art. 43A Participation of workers in management of industries 4131
Scope of Art. 43A 4131
Art. 44 Uniform civil code for the citizens 4132
1. India 4132
— Scope and Object of Art. 44 4132
— What is a Civil Code? 4132
— Pre-Constitution codification. 4133
— What is Personal Law 4133
— Need for a uniform civil code. 4134
— Cold storage for Art. 44 4134
— Need for a uniform civil code 4135
— British Policy 4137
— Partition of India. 4138
— Communal Award. 4137
— Two-Nation theory. 4138
— Preamble to the Constitution. 4138
— Article 51A. 4138
— Art. 25(2)(a). 4138
— Opposition constitutes violation of the Constitu-tion. 4138
— Muslim, arguments against Uniform Code. 4139
— Arguments against Art. 44 4139
— Table of reforms of Shariat in Muslim countries 4145
— Polygamy 4145
— Talaq 4145
— Maintenance : S. 125, Cr.P.C. 4146
— Inheritance 4147
— Legislative Power 4147
Art. 45 Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years 4147
1. International Charters 4147
(A) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 4147
(B) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 4148
2. Other Constitutions 4149
(A) Eire 4149
(B) French Republic 4150
(C) U.S.S.R. 4150
(D) China 4150
3. India 4150
— Compulsory Child education 4151
— Scope of the Directive 4151
— Whether enforceable 4151
— Implementation 4152
— Legislative Power 4153
Art. 46 Promotion of educational and economic interest of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections 4153
1. Other Constitutions 4153
— Eire 4153
— Pakistan 4153
2. India 4153
— Scope of Art. 46 : Promotion of educational and economic interests of weaker sections 4153
— ‘Weaker sections’ 4157
— Legislation for upliftment of weaker sections 4158
Art. 47 Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health 4158
1. International Charters 4159
(A) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 4159
(B) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 4159
— Additional Protocol to the American Constitution on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: 4159
2. Other Constitutions 4160
(A) U.S.A. 4160
(B) Eire 4160
(C) U.S.S.R. 4160
(D) China 4160
(E) Pakistan 4161
3. India 4161
— Public Health 4161
— Prohibition 4163
— Implementation 4164
Art. 48 Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry 4166
1. Other Constitution 4166
2. India 4167
— Art. 48. “Organise agriculture” 4168
— Prohibition of cow slaughter 4169
— Legislative Power 4169
— Existing Law 4169
— Legislation by State 4169
Art. 48A Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life 4169
1. Other Constitution 4169
— China 4170
— Afghanistan 4170
— Srilanka 4170
2. India 4170
— Protection of environments 4170
— Art. 48A and 51A 4170
— Mandamus. 4171
— Legislative power 4174
— Existing Law 4174
— Laws made by Parliament 4174
Art. 49 Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance 4174
1. Other Constitutions 4175
— Bangladesh 4175
— China 4175
2. India 4175
— Amendment 4175
— Object or Amendment 4175
— Legislative Power 4175
Art. 50 Separation of judiciary from executive 4177
1. Other Constitutions 4178
— Pakistan 4178
— West Germany 4178
2. India 4178
— Meaning of Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive 4178
— History of the separation of executive and ma-gisterial functions 4181
— Prior to Independence 4181
— Cr. P.C., 1973. 4183
Art. 51 Promotion of international peace and security 4189
1. International Charters 4190
(A) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 4190
(B) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 4190
(C) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 4190
2. Other Constitutions 4191
(A) Eire 4191
(B) French Republic 4191
(C) Japan 4191
(D) West Germany 4191
(E) Sri Lanka (Ceylon) 4192
(F) Constitution of the Russian Federation, 1993. 4192
(G) Pakistan 4192
(H) Bangladesh 4192
(I) Kingdom of Bhutan 4192
3. India 4192
— Object of Art. 51 4192
— Art. 51: Cl. (a) : Promotion of international peace 4193
— Art. 51 as a guide to interpretation 4193
— Cl. (c): Respect for International Law 4197
(A) U.S.A. 4197
(B) England 4198
(C) Eire 4201
(D) West Germany 4201
(E) France 4201
(F) India 4201
— Treaty obligation 4202
— Cf. (d) : Arbitration 4204
PART IVA
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Art. 51A Fundamental Duties 4207
1. What are fundamental Duties 4208
2. European Convention. 4208
3. Fundamental Duties to be distinguished from limitations on fundamental Rights. 4210
4. Other Constitutions 4211
— Afghanistan 4211
— Bangladesh 4211
— Japan 4212
— Sri Lanka 4212
— Tanzania 4212
— U.S.S.R. 4212
— China 4212
— U.S.A. 4213
— U.K. 4214
— Allegiance to the State 4214
— U.K. 4214
— U.S.A. 4214
— Duty regarding commission of crime by other persons. 4214
— Greece; Cyprus 4215
5. India 4215
— Utility of the Fundamental Duties 4215
— Cl. (b) : Duty as to improvement of environ-ments 4219
— ‘Compassion for living creatures’ 4220
— Fundamental Duties as an aid to interpretation 4221
— Report of the Committee on Fundamental Du-ties of Citizens 4224
— Recommendations 4224
— Optimising Benefits from Existing Schemes / Programmes 4225
— Protection and Improvement of Envi-ronment 4226
— Protection and Improvement of Envi-ronment 4226
— Reorienting Approaches to School Cur-riculum 4226
— Elimination of Gender Bias 4227
— Reorienting Teacher Education Pro-grammes 4227
— Incorporating Fundamental Duties in Higher and Professional Education 4229
— Public Administration and Civil Ser-vants 4229
— Business and Industry 4230
— Media 4230
— Legislative power 4231
App. I The National Commission For Minorities Act, 1992 4232
App. II The National Commission for Women Act, 1990 4237
App. III The National Commission For Backward Classes Act, 1993 4243
App. IV The National Commission For Safai Karamcharis Act, 1993 4248
App. V The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 4253
Subject Index [1]