D D Basu Commentary on Constitution of India Vol. 2

DR. DURGA DAS BASU’S
COMMENTARY ON
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
EIGHTH EDITION, 2007
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2
PART III
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (CONTD.)
[ARTICLE 14 — EQUALITY BEFORE LAW (CONTD.) FROM VOL. 1]
Art. 14—Equality before law (contd.)
3. Equal protection of the laws 1382
— International Charters 1382
— Universal Declaration 1383
— U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 1383
— European Convention on Human Rights 1383
— Other Constitutions 1383
(A) U.S.A. 1383
— Equal Protection and Due Process. 1383
— Equality in equal circumstances. 1383
— Does not prohibit ‘reasonable’ classification 1384
— Equal Protection and Police power. 1385
(B) Japan 1388
(C) Nepal 1388
(D) Bangladesh 1388
— India 1388
— Equal Protection of the Laws: meaning of 1388
— Equal treatment in equal circumstances. 1390
— Does not take away the power of classification for legitimate purposes, and on a reasonable basis. 1395
— The classification must be based on real differences having reasonable relation with the object of legislation. 1402
— Inequality, per se, does not violate equal protection. 1404
— The classification need not be scientifically perfect. 1406
— The legislation need not be all-embracing. 1408
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Mere possibility of abuse of power conferred by a law does not invalidate a law, which itself is not discriminatory. 1412
— What classification is reasonable 1413
— U.S.A. 1413
— India. 1414
— Initial reasonableness may be taken away by subsequent cir-cumstances. 1419
— Classification of a single individual and ad hoc legislation 1421
— How far reasonableness may be determined with reference to other laws 1423
— Limits of classification 1424
— Reasonable basis of classification 1426
I. Intelligible differentia 1427
— Geographical basis. 1427
— Historical reasons. 1431
— Pabitra Kumar v. State of West Bengal. 1434
— Basis of time. 1435
— Nature of persons, business, calling etc. 1439
— Age. 1439
— Aliens. 1439
— Cattle slaughter, ban on. 1440
— Company. 1443
II. Differentia having nexus to the object of legislation 1443
— Admission. 1444
— Control of rent. 1447
— Co-operative Societies. 1448
— Court Martial. 1448
— Criminal proceedings. 1448
— Debt relief 1450
— Displaced persons. 1450
— Education; Admission and examination to educational insti-tution, etc. 1450
— Art. 14 of the Constitution 1450
— Oral Interview or Viva Voce Test 1457
— Educational institutions. 1460
— Private institutions. 1460
— Essential commodity. 1462
— Foreign exchange. 1463
— Electricity. 1463
— Foreigners. 1464
— Government contracts, distribution of largeese, etc. 1464
— Government property, business, etc. 1474
— Labour. 1475
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Land reforms. 1475
— Lease 1477
— Nationalization. 1477
— Persons. 1477
— Personal laws. 1478
— Political parties. 1480
— Pre-emption. 1480
— Prisoners. 1480
— Profession. 1482
— Prohibition. 1483
— Prostitutes. 1483
— Public Servants. 1483
— Regulation of business. 1484
— Religious endowments. 1486
— Relationship of landlord and tenant. 1486
— Reorganisation of territories. 1487
— Scheduled Caste and Tribes. 1487
— Services. 1487
— Sex. 1488
— Social security and labour legislation. 1488
— State Transport Undertaking. 1488
— Statutory Corporation. 1489
— Tax, evasion of. 1489
— Taxation. 1490
— Tenants, protection of. 1490
— Trade, calling, etc. 1490
— Trade Unions. 1490
— Universities. 1490
— Wages. 1491
— Working journalists. 1491
— Does morality enter into the consideration of reasonableness for the purpose of Art. 14? 1492
— Garg v. U.O.I. (the Bearer-Bond Case) 1492
— A critique. 1493
— Classification authorised by other provisions of the Constitu-tion 1497
— Reasonable classification and discrimination 1501
— Universal Declaration. 1501
— When does, then, the differentiation become unreasonable? 1501
— European Convention. 1502
— India. 1502
— Equal Protection and Taxation. 1503
— U.S.A. 1503
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— India. 1507
— Some of the classifications which are held reasonable 1519
— Mode of assessment. 1522
— Rule of taxation. 1522
— Commencement of liability. 1522
— Evasion of tax. 1522
— Summary. 1523
— Equal Protection and Procedural Laws 1523
— U.S.A. 1523
— India. 1524
— Maganlal’s case—a critique. 1532
— Equal Protection of the poor 1536
— U.S.A. 1536
— India. 1537
— Provision for special Criminal Courts, how far offends against Art. 14 1538
(A) U.S.A.. 1538
(B) West Germany 1538
(C) India. 1539
— Legislation against named individual or individuals 1549
(A) U.S.A. 1549
(B) India. 1550
— Equal protection and presumptions of fact and law 1560
(A) U.S.A. 1560
(B) India 1560
— Equal protection and political rights 1564
(A) U.S.A. 1564
(B) India 1566
— How the classification may be made by the Legislature 1568
— Unconstitutionality of vesting unguided discretionary power in the administrative authority in applying the law 1569
— Excessive delegation. 1569
I. Excessive delegation of legislative power 1569
(A) U.S.A. 1569
(B) India 1570
II. Art. 14: Equal Protection. 1572
— Equal Protection. 1572
(A) U.S.A. 1572
(B) India 1572
III. Art. 19: Reasonableness of restriction. 1573
(A) U.S.A.. 1573
(Art. 14 Contd.)
(B) India. 1574
— Equal Protection and legislation conferring discretionary power upon the Executive 1575
— Power to grant exemptions 1586
— How to ascertain policy of an act 1588
— Is it permissible for the Legislature to vest the Executive with a discretionary power to make a sub-classification? 1589
— Discretion relating to ‘Fundamental’ and other rights 1591
— Comments on 1591
— Pannalal’s case. 1591
— The guarantee of equal protection extends to administration of laws 1593
(A) U.S.A. 1593
(B) India 1593
— Ultra vires act of the administrative authority may itself be hit by Art. 14. 1598
— Discrimination by a purely administrative act 1601
— Where discretionary power is vested in a staff or statutory corporation or an agency of the State 1602
— Equality and enforcement of Contractual Rights 1606
— Equal Protection and Service Conditions 1614
(a) Appointment. 1615
(b) Pay. 1625
(c) Other conditions of service. 1633
(d) Confirmation. 1635
(e) Seniority. 1635
(f) Promotion. 1638
(g) Termination. 1646
(h) Abolition of post 1651
(i) Compulsory retirement . 1652
(j) Reversion. 1654
(k) Superannuation. 1654
(l) Pension. 1657
(m) Transfer. 1660
(n) Reorganisation. 1662
(o) Reservation for backward classes. 1662
(p) Access to courts. 1662
(q) Application of different sets of rules at option 1664
(r) Retrospective change in the Rules relating to con-ditions of service 1668
(s) Implementation of administrative rules and in-structions 1671
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Equal Protection in Criminal trials 1674
A. Procedural discrimination 1674
B. Equal Protection in sentence 1677
— Burden of Proof 1679
— Presumption of reasonableness of classification and Consti-tutionality. 1681
— No attempt to classify. 1687
— Pleading 1689
— Amendment of pleading 1691
— How the presumption may be rebutted 1691
I. Intrinsic evidence. 1691
II. Extraneous evidence. 1693
— Intention of the Legislature immaterial 1694
(A) U.S.A. 1695
(B) India 1695
— Effect of unreasonable classification 1697
— Severability, doctrine of, applicability to law offending Art. 14 1697
— India. 1697
— A retrospect on classification and judicial review thereof 1700
— Judicial review scope of. 1700
— Limitations of the doctrine of classification 1701
— Arbitrariness and Classification 1702
— Who can complain of the violation of Equal Protection 1705
— Locus standi 1705
— Orthodox view. 1705
— Public Interest Litigation. 1707
— Right cannot be waived 1710
— The tangle of a corporation and its share-holders 1711
— Whether illegitimate child is a ‘person’ 1712
(A) U.S.A. 1712
(B) India. 1713
— Equal Protection and aliens 1713
(A) U.S.A. 1713
(B) India 1714
— Whether the State is a ‘person’ for purposes of Art. 14 1716
(A) England. 1716
(B) U.S.A. 1716
(C) India. 1716
— Is the State a person protected by Act 14 ? 1718
— Natural and legal persons : a corporation is a legal person 1718
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Historical reasons for the State not being treated as a corpo-ration in England 1718
— In Australia the States are bodies corporate and politic 1718
— Submission : the provisions of our Constitution show that the Union and the States are legal persons. 1718
— Can enforce rights and globlisations one against the other 1719
— Strange consequences of the Union and the States not being persons : equality can be denied by one State to another and property of one State in another can be confiscated 1719
— Decided cased do not raise the question whether the Union and the States are persons inter se 1720
— Submission : the distinction between governmental and trad-ing activities of a State is irrelevant to the question of the State being a person. 1720
— Discrimination in favour of the State itself 1721
— ‘The State shall not’. 1724
— The concept of ‘State action’ . 1724
— U.S.A. 1724
— India. 1726
— Doctrine of instrumentality of State. 1726
— Limitations of the Doctrine . 1729
— Discrimination by judicial acts 1731
— U.S.A. 1732
— India. 1733
— Naresh v. State of Maharashtra—a critique. 1733
— Antulay v. Nayak. 1735
— Where provision for a special procedure is not discriminato-ry 1737
— ‘Law’ includes subordinate legislation, etc. 1739
— Efficacy and vitality of guarantee of Equal Protection 1741
(A) U.S.A. 1741
(a) Racial discrimination 1741
(b) Political discrimination 1742
(B) India. 1743
— Ramprasad v. State of Bihar . 1744
— Equal Protection and Bill of Rights. 1744
— U.K. 1744
— U.S.A. 1744
— India. 1745
— Equality as a basic feature of the Constitution of India 1747
— Exceptions to Art. 14 1749
— Applicability of Art. 14 to State of Jammu and Kashmir 1749
Art. 15. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. 1750
1. Amendment—Cl. (4) was added to Art. 15 by the Constitu-tion (First Amendment) Act, 1951 1752
2. Arts. 14, 15 and 16 1752
3. Arts. 15 and 16 1754
4. Clause (1)—Other Constitutions 1754
(A) U.S.A. 1754
(B) U.K. 1755
(C) U.S.S.R. 1756
— Yeltsin Constitution of Russia, 1993 1756
(D) Australia 1756
(E) Japan 1756
(F) West Germany 1756
(G) Botswana 1756
(H) Pakistan 1756
(I) Sri Lanka 1756
(J) South Africa. 1757
(K) Switzerland 1757
(L) Bangladesh. Art. 28 1757
(M) Bhutan 1757
(N) Government of India Act, 1935 1757
5. India 1757
— Scope of Cl. (1): Prohibition of Discrimination 1757
— Discrimination 1759
— ‘Citizen’ 1764
— ‘Religion’ 1764
— Racial Discrimination 1766
— U.K. 1766
— Canada. 1766
— U.S.A. 1766
— West Germany. 1768
— U.N. 1769
— India. 1769
— Protective discrimination and affirmative action 1769
— ‘Caste’ 1771
— U.N. 1772
— Universal Declaration. 1772
— European Convention on Human Rights. 1772
— U.S.A. 1772
— Germany. 1773
(Art. 15 Contd.)
— India. 1773
— ‘Place of birth.’ 1779
— Discrimination on other grounds 1782
6. Clause (2)—Other Constitutions 1783
(A) U.S.A. 1783
(B) U.K. 1784
(C) India 1785
— Special features of Cls.(2)-(4) of Art.15 1785
— Scope of Cl. (2): Prohibition of discrimination in places of public resort 1785
— To what extent is Cl. (2) justiciable 1786
— ‘Race’ 1786
— “On grounds only of” 1787
— ‘Religion’ 1787
— ‘Caste’ 1788
— Sub-Cl. (a): ‘Shop’ 1788
— ‘Places of public entertainment’ 1788
— Sub-Cl. (b): ‘Places of public resort’ 1789
— ‘State funds’ 1791
— What constitutes dedication to the public 1791
— Proof of dedication 1792
— Ambit of dedicated right 1792
7. Clause (3)—Other Constitutions 1793
— Protective Discrimination in favour of women 1793
— U.N. 1793
— U.S.A. 1793
— Modern trend. 1793
— India 1795
— Protective discrimination 1795
— Scope of clause (3) : Special provision for women and children 1795
— ‘Special provision’ 1797
— National Commission for Women 1801
— ‘Children’ 1801
— Arts. 15(3) and 14 1801
8. Clause (4) 1802
— Cl. (4), in the nature of an exception 1802
— Object of cl. (4): Special provision for backward classes 1802
— ‘Socially and educationally backward’ 1805
(Art. 15 Contd.)
— ‘Tests for identifying S.E.B.C. 1807
— Poverty. 1807
— Social backwardness 1808
— Occupation. 1809
— Educational backwardness. 1809
— Residence. 1810
— Caste. 1811
— ‘Class of citizens’ 1817
— The special provision must be for ‘advancement’ 1817
— Reservation of seats in educational institutions 1818
— Quantum of permissible reservation 1838
— Reservation in State—owned institutions 1845
— Reservation in favour of children of ‘political suffer-ers’ 1847
— Scope of cl. (4) in relation to cl. (1) 1850
— Judicial review and the doctrine of ‘Fraud on the Con-stitution’ 1852
— Scheduled Castes and Tribes 1854
— Effect of Migration of member of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe from one State to another 1859
— Effect on conversion 1860
— Who can complain of violation of Art. 15 1860
— No Waiver. 1861
— Pleading 1862
— Onus 1863
— Presumption of constitutionality where a statute is challenged as violative of Art. 15 1865
— Effects of unconstitutionality 1866
— Applicability of Art. 15 to Jammu & Kashmir 1867
— Enabling the State Governments to pass legislation
Article 15(5) on reservation on Private Educational Institutions except Minority 1867
Art. 16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. 1868
1. Other Constitutions 1870
(A) U.S.A. 1870
(B) Australia 1870
(C) U.S.S.R. 1870
(D) Government of India Act, 1935 1870
(E) Afghanistan. Art. 50(5) 1870
(E) Bangladesh 1870
2. India 1871
(Art. 16 Contd.)
— Amendment 1871
— Scope of Article 16 1875
— Arts. 14 and 16 : Reasonable classification permissible 1876
— Judicial Review. 1880
— Articles 15 and 16 1886
— Arts. 16 and 310(1) 1888
3. Clause (1) 1888
— ‘Equality of opportunity’ 1888
— Validity of conditions. 1890
— ‘Employment or appointment to an office under the State’ 1903
— ‘Matters relating to employment or appointment’ 1904
(a) In the matter of appointment 1905
— Recruitment. 1910
— Laying down qualifications or conditions. 1911
— Recruitment from different sources. 1912
— Quota and Rota. 1915
— Selection. 1916
— Written and viva voce tests. 1916
(b) Promotion 1919
— Promotion of recruits from different sources, or em-ployees belonging to different classes. 1925
— ‘Quota’. 1925
— Seniority and promotion. 1929
— ‘Rota’. 1934
— Recruitment from different sources. 1938
— Ad hoc recruits. 1938
— Permanent and temporary employees. 1942
— Integration of recruits from different sources. 1943
— Non-statutory instructions or Rules. 1945
— As between recruits from same source. 1945
— As between recruits from different sources. 1947
— Promotional posts. 1947
— Rotation or weightage. 1951
(c) Confirmation 1951
(d) Pay 1955
(e) Transfer 1961
— What is meant by transfer in service? 1964
(f) Termination of Service 1964
(g) Termination of probationer 1969
(Art. 16 Contd.)
(h) Reversion 1976
(i) Retrenchment 1978
(j) Superannuation 1983
(k) Other conditions of service 1984
— Gratuity 1986
— Absorption and regularisation 1986
— Salary and increments, etc. 1991
— ‘Office’ 1996
— ‘Under the State’ 1997
— Violation of Art. 16 by retrospective operation of Ser-vice Rules 2003
— Violation of Art. 16 by administrative instructions 2006
4. Clause (2) 2009
— Other Constitutions 2009
— U.S.A. 2009
A. Public employment 2009
B. Private employment 2009
— India 2010
— Scope of Cl. (2) 2010
— ‘Only’ 2011
— ‘Religion’ 2013
— ‘Race’ 2014
— ‘Sex’ 2014
— Can the principle underArt. 15(3) be invoked in the interpretation or application of Art. 16(2)? 2015
— ‘Descent’, ‘Residence’ 2016
— ‘Descent’ 2016
— Compassionate appointment. 2017
— ‘Place of birth, residence’ 2019
— ‘Only’ 2020
— ‘Ineligible for’ and ‘discriminated against’ 2022
5. Clause (3) 2022
— Scope of cl. (3): Residence for State employment 2022
6. Clause (4) 2023
— ‘Provision’ 2023
— Reservation for backward classes 2024
— Relation between cls. (1), (2) & (4). 2035
— Extent of valid reservation 2041
— Judicial review of reservation in Art. 16(4) 2042
— Exceptions to and limitations of reservation 2045
(Art. 16 Contd.)
— ‘Backward Class’ 2047
— ‘In the opinion of the State not adequately represented’ 2050
— Arts. 15(4) and 16(4) 2051
— Arts. 16(4) and 46 2051
7. Clause (4A) 2051
8. Clause (4-B) 2053
— Arts. 16(4) and 335 2054
9. Clause (5) 2055
— Office relating to denominational institutions 2055
— Reservation or classification valid under Art. 14 2056
(a) Recruitment 2056
(b) Fixation of pay 2057
(c) Promotion 2057
— Remedies 2057
— Locus standi 2059
— Parties 2060
— Pleading 2062
— Reliefs 2063
— Bars to relief 2064
— Onus 2065
— Applicability of Art. 16 to Jammu & Kashmir 2065
Art. 17. Abolition of Untouchability 2066
1. Scope of Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability 2066
2. Mode of enforcement of Art. 17 2069
3. ‘In accordance with law.’ 2070
4. ‘Untouchability’ 2071
A. Religious disabilities 2073
— Applicability to Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains 2075
B. Legality of excommunication on ground of caste or religion 2076
C. Disabilities regarding use of place of public resort 2078
5. Applicable to Jammu & Kashmir 2078
6. Analogous Legislation 2079
Art. 18. Abolition of titles. 2079
1. Other Constitutions 2080
(A) U.S.A. 2080
(B) German Reich 2080
(C) Eire 2080
(D) Japan 2080
(Art. 18 Contd.)
(E) Bangladesh 2080
2. India 2080
— Object of Article 18: Abolition of Titles 2080
— Analysis of the Article 2081 - ‘Title’ 2081
— ‘Military distinction’ 2081
— ‘Form of address.’ 2081
— ‘By the State’ 2081
— ‘Foreign State’ 2081
— Sanction behind Art. 18 2081
— Constitutionality of the Bharat Ratna awards. 2082
— Cls. (3)-(4) 2085
— Applicable to Jammu & Kashmir 2085
Art. 19. Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc. 2086
1. Amendments 2098
— Effects of Amendments 2099
2. General 2099
3. Scope of Art. 19: Six Freedoms 2099
— Object of Art. 19(1) : A guarantee against State action 2101
— Arts. 19, 21-22 2103
4. rt. 19: Confined to citizens 2104
— Whether a corporation can be citizen within the mean-ing of Art. 19 2106
— Unincorporated association 2107
5. Nature of the right guaranteed by Art. 19. 2107
6. Provisions of the Constitution barring application of Art. 19 2109
— Loss of locus standi to enforce rights under Art. 19 2110
7. Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency 2112
— Arts. 358 and 359 2114
— Proclamations of Emergency and exercise of the pow-ers under Arts. 358-59 2115
— Questions still open 2116
— Effects of revocation of Emergency 2117
8. Clauses (2-6): The Limitation in general: How far ‘Police Powers’ acknowledged 2117
9. Fundamental rights and social control. 2117
(A) U.S.A. 2118
(B) India. 2120
10. How far the limitations specified in Cls. (2)-(6) are exhaus-tive 2122
11. Scope for judicial review 2126
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— U.S.A. 2126
— India. 2127
— U.S.A. 2131
— India. 2133
12. What constitutes a ‘restriction’ 2133
13. Conditions of a valid restriction on the fundamental rights under Art. 19 2136
(a) The restriction must be imposed by ‘law’ 2136
(b) The law must be made by the ‘State’ 2138
(c) Such law must be otherwise valid 2138
(d) The restriction must be related to one of the grounds specified in the limitation clauses 2139
(e) Relationship with permissible ground must be ‘prox-imate’ 2140
— ‘In the interests or’: the power to curb tendencies 2142
— U.S.A. 2142
— India. 2143
14. Whether the guarantee under Art. 19(1) is subject to other provisions of the Constitution 2145
— Comments on Sharma v. Sri Krishna. 2145
— Sp. Ref. No. 1 of 1964. 2147
— Adjustment of competing fundamental rights 2149
(A) U.N. Declarations 2149
— Universal Declaration 2150
— Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 2150
— Liberty has to be limited in order to be effectively pos-sessed 2151
— European Convention 2151
(B) U.S.A 2151
(C) India 2153
— Conflict between different rights guaranteed by Art. 19(1) 2155
(D) The restriction must be ‘reasonable’ 2157
— Burden of proof when infringement of a right under Art. 19 is alleged 2166
— Why there be a presumption? 2166
(A) U.S.A. 2166
(B) India 2167
— Comments on B. Banerjee v. Anita 2170
15. ‘Due Process’ and ‘Reasonableness’ 2171
(A) U.S.A. 2171
(Art. 19 Contd.)
I. Procedural Due Process 2175
(a) Notice 2175
— Notice of hearing 2175
(b) Opportunity to be heard 2175
— Opportunity to be heard in defence 2175
(c) Impartial tribunal 2176
— Hearing before a competent and impartial tribunal 2176
II. Substantive Due Process 2176
— Just relation to public interest. 2176
— Compelling need for protection 2177
— Restriction not to be excessive 2178
— Language not to be vague 2179
— Means to be rational 2179
(B) India 2182
— Applicability of American decisions in determin-ing ‘reasonableness’ of a restriction under Art. 19 2191
— Substantive and Procedural Reasonableness 2194
— Substantive aspects 2194
— Procedural aspects. 2197
I. Substantive Reasonableness 2198
(a) The restriction must have a rational relation to the object which the Legislature seeks to achieve 2198
(A) U.S.A. 2198
(B) India. 2200
(b) The means by which a fundamental right may be restricted 2203
(A) U.S.A.. 2203
(B) India. 2205
(c) The restriction must not be excessive 2206
(A) U.S.A. 2206
(B) India. 2207
— Direct impact and incidental encroachment 2209
— U.S.A. 2209
— India 2210
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Whether ‘restriction’ includes ‘prohibition’ 2213
(A) U.S.A. 2213
(B) Australia 2215
(C) Canada 2215
(D) India 2216
— What constitutes a total prohibition 2220
— Vagueness as a test of unreasonableness 2221
— Penal law 2221
— U.K. 2221
— U.S.A. 2221
— Regulatory law 2222
— India 2224
— State of M.P. v. Baldeo 2224
— Retroactivity and reasonableness 2226
— U.S.A. 2226
— India. 2228
— Regulatory law. 2231
— Taxing law 2232
— Validating Act 2233
— Prithvi Cotton Mills case 2234
II. Procedural Reasonableness 2238
— Natural justice as a condition for reasonableness 2238
(A) U.S.A. 2238
(B) India. 2239
A. Opportunity to be heard 2239
— Rejection of tender 2241
— Blacklisting. 2242
B. Bias 2248
— Whether a statute may be saved by inferring a requirement to observe natural justice, where the statute is silent 2250
— Comment on Chaturbhai v. Union of India 2255
— U.K. 2256
— U.S.A. 2256
— India. 2257
— How the opportunity to be heard is to be offered 2258
— How far it would be reasonable to make the exercise of a fundamental right dependent on the subjective satisfaction or discretion of the Executive 2269
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— U.S.A. 2269
— India 2270
— Art. 19(1)(d). 2277
— Art. 19(1)(g). 2279
— Art. 19(1)(b). 2283
— Emergency. 2285
— Art. 19(1)(a). 2285
— Art. 19(1)(b). 2287
— Art. 19(1)(c). 2288
— Art. 19 (1)(g). 2289
— Art. 19(1)(d). 2293
— Where the discretion is vested in a superior au-thority 2294
— U.S.A. 2294
— India. 2295
— Not juristically sound. 2296
— Where the discretion is not unfettered 2301
— Possibility of abuse, no test of reasonableness 2307
— Right to appeal as a condition of reasonableness 2309
— U.S.A. 2309
— India 2309
— Right of access to Court as a condition of un- reasonableness 2312
— Requirement to state reasons 2315
— Delegation of the power to grant exemptions from a law 2324
— Delegation of power to make the law applicable to new situations or things 2328
— Vesting of discretion in judicial authorities 2332
— The discretion is not unguided or unfettered where the Legislature has laid down the policy or standard 2335
— Reasonableness of presumptions of law 2338
(A) U.S.A. 2338
(B) India 2340
I. Rebuttable Presumption 2340
II. Conclusive Presumption 2341
— Reasonableness of throwing burden of proof on the accused 2344
(A) U.S.A. 2344
(B) India 2344
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Special provision for enforcement of civil liabili-ty 2346
— Reasonableness of taxing laws 2347
I. Substantive reasonableness. 2347
II. Procedural Reasonableness 2350
— Reasonableness of a penal law 2351
— Reasonableness for the Purposes of Arts. 14 and 19 2351
— ‘In the Interests of’ 2355
— ‘Interests of the general public’ 2358
— Conflict between different rights guaranteed by Art. 19(1) 2363
— Conflict between fundamental rights of different persons 2365
— Are there any unenumerated Fundamental Rights under the Constitution of India? 2366
15. Clause (1)(a)—Freedom of Speech and Expression 2369
16. Other Constitutions 2369
— What is the rationale of Fee Expression? 2369
(1) Self Governance 2369
(2) The search for truth 2370
(3) Societal Tolerance and self-restraint 2370
(4) Autonomy 2370
(a) The checking value 2370
(b) The Tolerant Society 2370
(c) Free speech and character 2371
(d) Conformity and Dissent 2371
(A) U.S.A. 2371
(B) U.K. 2375
(C) Eire. 2376
(D) West Germany 2377
(E) Japan 2377
(F) Malta 2377
(G) Namibia 2377
— Article 22: Limitation upon Fundamental Rights and Freedom 2377
(H) Singapore 2377
(I) South Africa 2378
(J) South Korea 2378
(K) Switzerland 2378
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Article 16—Freedom of Opinion and Infor-mation 2378
— Article 17—Freedom of Media 2378
(L) Canada 2378
— Title (1): (1) Limitation of Rights 2378
— Title (2) : (2) Freedom of Religion, Speech, Asso-ciation 2379
(M) Sri Lanka (Ceylon) 2379
(N) European Convention 2379
17. India 2380
— Need for Freedom of Speech and Expression in a Democratic Country 2380
— Meaning of Freedom of ‘Speech’ and ‘Expression’ 2383
— Freedom Not to Speak 2393
(A) U.S.A. 2393
(B) India 2394
— The right to know and the right of access to informa-tion 2396
— U.S.A. 2396
— India 2397
— Right to Privacy 2401
— Official Secrets 2404
— U.K. 2405
— India 2405
— U.S.A. 2405
— India 2406
— Speech plus conduct or action 2406
— U.S.A. 2406
— Symbolic speech 2408
(A) U.S.A. 2408
(B) India 2409
— Special incidents of forms of expression other than speech 2411
18. Clause (2)—Restrictions upon Freedom of Speech and Expression 2411
19. Other Constitutions 2411
(A) U.K. 2411
(B) U.S.A 2411
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Previous Restraint 2412
— ‘Clear and present danger’ test 2413
— Ups and downs of the doctrine 2414
— Doctrine of ‘preferred position’ 2416 20. India 2416
— What Constitutes ‘Restriction’ 2416
— Restriction and Regulation 2418
— U.S.A. 2418
— India 2420
— Restriction and Prohibition 2420
— U.S.A. 2420
— For obscenity and Pornography 2421
— For Fighting words 2421
— India 2422
— Forms of Restriction of the Freedom of Speech and Expression 2422
— U.S.A. 2425
— India 2425
— Grounds of Restriction 2427
— Grounds Exhaustive 2428
— ‘In the Interests or: Reasonableness of Anticipatory action 2431
(A) U.S.A. 2431
(B) India 2433
— The Grounds in Particular 2436
I. Sovereignty and integrity of India 2436
— Legislation by Parliament 2436
II. Security of the State 2437
(A) U.S.A. 2437
(B) U.K. 2439
(C) India 2440
— Legislation by Parliament 2444
III. Friendly Relations with Foreign States 2446
(A) U.K. 2446
(B) India 2447
— Existing Law 2447
— Legislative Power 2448
IV. Public Order 2448
(A) U.S.A. 2448
(B) U.K. 2449
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(C) India 2450
— ‘Existing Laws’ 2458
— Legislation by Parliament 2460
V. Decency or morality 2462
(A) U.K. 2462
(a) Obscene Publication 2462
(b) Indecent conduct 2465
(B) U.S.A. 2466
— Test of obscenity. 2468
(C) India. 2471
— ‘Morality’ 2474
— ‘Decency’ 2475
— S. 292, I.P.C. 2477
— Obscenity. 2478
— Tests of: 2478
— Effect on readers. 2480
— Contemporary national moral standard. 2481
— Can we have a standard for India? 2485
— The Japanese view. 2487
— The American view. 2487
— The Indian view. 2488
— The question of ‘current’ or contemporary standard. 2488
— India. 2488
— Horror comics. 2491
— U.K. 2491
— India. 2491
— U.S.A. 2491
— Nudism and ‘live entertainment’ 2492
— U.S.A. 2492
— India. 2492
— ‘Existing laws’ 2493
— Legislation by Parliament 2493
VI. Contempt of Court 2494
(A) U.S.A. 2494
— Constitutionality of Law of Contempt 2496
(B) England 2496 U.K. 2496 India. 2496
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(I) Scandalising the Court 2500
(II) Obstruction of or interference with the due course of justice 2506
(III) Contempt in the Face of the Court 2509
(C) India. 2510
— Contempt of Courts Act, 1971. 2510
— Not a complete Code. 2510
— Civil and Criminal Contempt of Court 2511
— Discretion of Court 2511
— Jurisdiction to punish for contempt 2512
— Can the Court take cognizance of contempt suo moto? 2513
VII. Defamation 2514
(A) U.S.A. 2514
(B) U.K. 2515
(C) India 2515
— Existing Indian Law 2516
— Legislation by Parliament 2516
— Invasion of privacy by publication 2516
— U.K. 2516
— U.S.A. 2517
— India. 2518
VIII. Incitement to an offence 2520
(A) U.K. 2520
(B) U.S.A. 2521
(C) India. 2521
— Existing Central Law 2526
— Reasonableness of restrictions upon freedom of expres-sion 2526
I. Substantive aspect 2526
(A) U.S.A. 2526
(B) India 2528
(a) Remoteness. 2528
(b) Excessiveness 2531
(A) U.S.A. 2534
(B) India. 2534
II. Procedural unreasonableness. 2537
— Sedition 2539
(A) U.K. 2539
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(B) U.S.A. 2540
— The Smith Act, 1940. 2542
(C) India 2543
— S. 124A, I.P.C.—Pre-Constitution interpretation. 2544
— Post-Constitution interpretation. 2544
I. Prior to the amendment of 1951 2544
— Proper interpretation of s. 124A. 2546
— Criticism of a Minister 2548
— Prior to the Constitution. 2548
— Under the Constitution. 2548
— S. 199(2), Cr. P.C. 1973 2550
— Constitutionality of s. 3 of the Police (Incitement to Disaffection) Act, 1922 2551
— Freedom of Speech and Airwaves 2551
— Regulation of speech in educational institutions 2554
— U.S.A. 2554
— India. 2555
— Freedom of Advocacy 2556
— Freedom of the Press and Censorship 2558
(A) U.K. 2560
— Absence of previous restraint. 2561
(B) U.S.A. 2561
— Unconstitutionality of prior restraint in any form. 2566
— Scope of injunctions affecting freedom of the Press. 2569
(C) West Germany 2571
(D) India 2571
— Whether specific guarantee necessary. 2573
— Ambit of the freedom. 2573
— Restrictions on Freedom of the Press. 2576
— What constitutes a restriction upon Freedom of the Press. 2579
— Unreasonable restrictions upon Freedom of the Press 2580
— Censorship. 2580
— In times of war. 2582
— In time of peace. 2583
— Publication of Parliamentary Proceedings by the Press 2588
— U.K. 2588
— India. 2589
— Current Law. 2590
— Report of Judicial Proceedings 2592
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— U.K. 2592
— U.S.A. 2592
— India. 2593
— Contempt of Court by the Press 2595
— What is a Fair Comment or Criticism and its Limits? 2596
— Injunction Against the Press 2600
— Tax on Newspapers 2601
(A) U.S.A. 2601
(B) India. 2602
— Other interferences with the Freedom of the Press 2604
I. Re. the Matter to be Published 2604
II. Re. the Volume of Newspaper and its Circulation 2605
— Reduction of space for advertisement. 2606
II. Control Over Advertisements 2607
— Denial of Government advertisements. 2607
III. Control Over Price 2608
IV. Control Over Size 2608
V. Control Through Supply of Government con-trolled Newsprint 2609
— Special privilege, if any, as to non-disclosure of source of information 2609
— U.K. 2609
— U.S.A. 2612
— India. 2613
— Press Council Act. 2613
— Press & Registration of Books Act, 1867. 2614
— Existing Central Laws 2614
— Legislation by Parliament 2614
— Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1961. 2615
— Criminal Procedure Code, 1973. 2618
— Regulation of the mails and censorship of correspon-dence 2618
(A) U.K. 2618
(B) Japan 2618
(C) West Germany 2619
(D) U.S.A. 2619
(E) India 2620
— Restriction Through Customs 2621
(A) U.S.A. 2621
(B) India 2621
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Licensing as Distinguished from Censorship 2622
— U.S.A. 2622
— India. 2623
— Distribution of Literature 2626
(A) U.S.A. 2626
(B) India 2627
— Regulation of freedom of expression in public places 2628
(A) U.S.A. 2628
— Canada. 2632
— Distribution of literature. 2632
— Speech. 2633
(B) India 2635
— Distribution of literature or solicitation at private plac-es 2636
(A) U.S.A. 2636
(B) India. 2637
— Broadcasting of Information by Loudspeakers 2637
(A) U.S.A. 2637
(B) India 2639
— Broadcasting. 2639
— Censorship and licensing of dramatic performances 2644
(A) U.S.A. 2644
(B) U.K. 2644
(C) India 2644
— Censorship of Cinematograph Films 2645
(A) U.S.A. 2645
(B) India 2647
— Standard for censorship. 2648
— Television 2651
— India. 2651
— Video Cassettes 2653
(A) U.K. 2653
(B) U.S.A. 2653
— Advertisement as a Medium of Expression 2653
(A) U.S.A. 2654
(B) India 2656
— Symbolic Speech 2659
(A) U.S.A. 2659
(B) India. 2661
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Right to Strike and to ‘Picket’ 2662
(A) U.S.A. 2662
(B) U.K. 2664
(C) Canada. 2664
(D) India 2665
— Right to Freedom of Expression of Government Ser-vants 2667
(A) U.S.A. 2667
(B) India 2668
— Right to Freedom of Expression of Prisoners 2669
— India. 2670
22. Cl. (1)(b)—Freedom of assembly 2670
23. Other Constitutions 2670
(A) European Convention 2670
(B) U.S.A. 2671
(C) U.K. 2673
(D) Eire 2673
(E) Japan 2673
(F) West Germany 2673
(G) Sri Lanka 2673
(H) Iran 2673
(I) Russia 2673
(J) Singapore 2674
(K) South Africa 2674
(L) South Korea 2674
(M) Switzerland 2674
(N) Namibia 2674
(O) Kuwait 2674
(P) Italy 2674
(Q) Denmark 2674
(R) Canada 2674
(S) Brazil 2674
(T) Belgium 2674
(U) Bangladesh 2674
24. India 2675
— Freedom of Assembly and its Limitations 2675
— Cl. (3) : Restrictions in the Interests of Sovereignty and Integrity of India 2677
— Restrictions in the Interest of Public Order 2677
(A) U.S.A. 2677
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(B) U.K. 2679
(C) India 2680
— Right of public meeting 2681
(A) U.K. 2681
(B) U.S.A. 2682
(C) India 2683
— Meetings on the highway 2685
— U.K. 2685
— India. 2685
— Right of assembly on Government property 2688
(A) U.S.A. 2688
(B) India 2688
— When does a lawful meeting become unlawful: the problem of the ‘hostile audience’ 2689
(A) U.S.A. 2689
(B) U.K. 2689
(C) Eire 2690
(D) India 2691
— Carrying arms 2692
(A) U.S.A. 2692
(B) India 2692
— Right of a Sikh to carry Kirpan 2692
— ‘Arms’ 2694
— The Ananda Margi Case. 2695
— Use of loudspeakers 2696
— Existing law 2698
— Legislation by Parliament 2700
— Constitutionality of the Prevention of Seditious Meet-ings Act, 1911 2700
— Reasonableness of restrictions 2701
I. Substantive aspect. 2701
II. Procedural aspect. 2702
— Right of Procession 2703
(A) U.K. 2703
(B) U.S.A. 2705
(C) India 2706
— Prior to the Constitution 2706
I. Prior to the Constitution. 2706
II. Under the Constitution 2707
A. Common law 2707
(Art. 19 Contd.)
B. Art. 19(1)(b) 2708
— Pre-Constitution decisions: Manzur v. Zaman. 2708
— Post-Constitution decision: Babulal v. State of Maha-rashtra. 2709
— Effects of declaring right of procession to be a funda-mental right. 2709
III. Art. 25: Special incidents of a religious proces-sion 2710
— Fundamental right to practise religion. 2710
— Ghulam’s Case. 2711
— U.K. 2711
— India. 2712
— Reason behind a separate footing of a religious proces-sion. 2712
(a) Before Constitution 2712
(b) Under the Constitution 2712
— Does the playing of music in the procession make any change in the legal position ? 2713
— U.K. 2713
— India. 2714
— Private nuisance. 2715
— Jalil v. Ramnath. 2715
— Piru v. Kalandi. 2716
— Public nuisance. 2716
— No justification to object to music as such. 2716
— Manzur’s case. 2717
— Sundram’s case. 2718
— Muslim intolerance, a relic of Muslim imperialism. 2718
— Muthialu’s case. 2718
— Sundram’s case. 2719
— Manzur’s case. 2719
— Janki’s case. 2719
— Jalil’s case 2719
— Chandu v. Nyahalchand. 2720
— Abdul Sattar’s case. 2720
— Piru’s case. 2721
— Hindus not obliged to lower the sound of music before the Mosque even when there is no prayer there. 2721
— The Mograhat case. 2721
— Bogey of breach of the peace 2723
(Art. 19 Contd.)
A. What the Police cannot do in the name of appre-hension of breach of the peace 2723
— Ghulam’s case. 2723
— Sundram’s case. 2723
— Falauddin’s case. 2724
— S. 144, Cr. P. C. cannot be imposed on both parties. 2725
B. What the Police should do when lawful proces-sionists are opposed by wrongdoers 2725
— Ismail’s case. 2725
— Falauddin’s case. 2725
— Magrahat case. 2726
— Re Sattar. 2726
— Summary of Police duties to maintain peace. 2726
— Religious processions cannot be totally banned. 2727
— What Secularism means. 2728
— ‘Regulation of time and place of procession, how far is it legitimate’ 2729
— The right of procession cannot be absolutely pro-hibited or denied. 2730
— Licensing. 2731
— S. 30 of the Police Act, 1861. 2732
— Constitutionality of s. 30(3). 2732
— Art. 14: 2732
— Arts. 19(1)(b) and 25: 2733
— Imposing conditions. 2733
— Regulating time of procession. 2733
— The licensing authority imposing a condition in the licence. 2734
— Stoppage of music. 2734
— Constitutionality of s. 30(4) of the Police Act. 2734
— Instances of reasonableness of restrictions on the free-dom of assembly 2736
I. Substantive aspect 2736
II. Procedural aspect 2736
25. Clause (1)(c)—Freedom of Association 2737
26. Other Constitutions 2737
(A) U.S.A. 2737
(B) U.K. 2741
(i) Conspiracy 2741
(ii) Quasi-military organization. 2741
(C) Switzerland 2741
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(D) U.S.S.R. 2742
(E) Eire 2742
(F) West Germany 2743
(G) Japan 2743
(H) Sri Lanka 2743
27. International Charters 2743
I. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 2743
II. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 2743
28. India 2744
— Freedom of Association, need for 2744
— Freedom of Association 2744
— Scope of the right 2746
— The right not to be a member of an association 2755
— U.K. 2755
— Eire. 2755
— India. 2755
— Conditions upon recognition and withdrawal of recog-nition 2756
— Right of collective bargaining and trade unionism 2761
(A) U.S.A. 2761
(B) U.K. 2762
(C) India 2762
— Right to strike 2767
(A) U.S.A. 2769
(B) U.K. 2770
(C) India 2771
— Right of collective bargaining of employers 2774
(A) U.S.A. 2774
(B) U.K. 2774
(C) India 2774
— Right of lock-out 2774
(A) U.S.A 2774
(B) U.K. 2775
(C) India 2775
— Political Parties 2776
— U.S.A. 2778
— India. 2779
— Clause (4) : Restrictions upon the Freedom of Associa-tion 2781
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Other Constitutions 2781
(A) U.S.A. 2781
— India 2784
— Grounds of Restriction 2784
— ‘Public order’ 2784
— Existing laws 2785
— Legislation by Parliament 2785
— Reasonableness of Restrictions 2786
(A) Procedural 2786
(B) Substantive 2787
— Restrictions upon the Freedom of Association of Gov-ernment servants 2789
(A) U.S.A. 2789
(B) U.K. 2789
(C) India 2790
(a) Membership of association 2790
(b) Disciplinary proceedings 2791
(c) Prohibition of strikes. 2792
— Restrictions upon rights of military and Police person-nel 2793
29. Clause (1)(d)—Freedom of Movement 2793
30. Other Constitutions 2793
(A) U.K. 2793
(B) U.S.A. 2793
(C) West Germany 2794
31. India 2794
— Freedom of Movement and Residence 2794
— ‘Throughout the territory of India’ 2795
— ‘Movement’ 2796
— Cl. (5): Restrictions upon the Freedom of Movement 2797
— What constitutes restriction upon the freedom of movement 2797
— Grounds of Restriction 2800
I. Interests of the general public 2800
(i) Public Health 2801
— U.S.A. 2801
(ii) Public security or safety 2802
(iii) Public Order 2802
(iv) Public morals 2803
II. Protection of the interests of a Scheduled Tribe 2803
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Reasonableness of restrictions 2804
I. Substantive Reasonableness 2804
— Whether provision for externment from an entire State is reasonable 2806
— Removal from India 2806
— Police Surveillance 2807
II. Procedural Reasonableness 2808
I. Right to be informed of the grounds 2809
II. The right to be heard 2810
III. Whether it is reasonable to vest power in the Executive to be exercised on its subjective satisfaction. 2811
— Arts. 19(1)(d) and 21: ‘Freedom of Movement’ and ‘Personal Liberty’ 2814
— Freedom to leave the country 2817
— U.K. 2817
— U.S.A. 2817
— Japan. 2818
— India. 2818
32. Clause (1)(e)—Freedom of Residence 2819
33. Other Constitutions 2819
(A) U.S.A. 2819
(B) Switzerland 2819
(C) Japan 2820
(D) Sri Lanka 2820
(E) Pakistan 2820
34. India 2820
— Freedom of residence 2821
— Grounds of restrictions 2823
— Reasonableness of restrictions 2823
— How far restrictions may be imposed upon the re-entry of citizens from abroad 2823
(A) U.S.A. 2823
(B) India 2824
35. Clause (1)(f)—Freedom of Property 2824
— Amendment 2824
36. Clause (1)(g)—Freedom of Profession 2825
37. Other Constitutions 2825
(A) U.K. 2825
(B) U.S.A. 2826
(C) Switzerland 2826
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(D) U.S.S.R. 2827
(E) Japan 2827
(F) West Germany 2827
(G) China 2827
(H) Namibia 2827
(I) Sri Lanka 2828
(J) Brazil 2828
(K) Bangladesh 2828
(L) Pakistan 2828
38. International Charters 2828
I. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 2828
II. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cul-tural Rights, 1966 2829
39. India 2829
— Freedom of profession, trade, business, meaning of 2829
— Meaning of ‘Business’, ‘Profession’ etc. 2830
— Right to close a business 2837
— Right to enter into contract 2838
— Contract with Government 2838
— Right of a lawyer to practise 2841
— Service under the Government 2842
— ‘Profession, Occupation, Trade, Business’ 2845
— ‘Profession’ 2845
— ‘Occupation’ 2845
— Establishment and Management of Educational Institu-tions 2846
— ‘Trade’ 2848
— ‘Business’ 2849
— “Business, Trade, Profession, Art” 2850
— Cl. (6): Restrictions on the Freedom of Trade, Profes-sion, etc. 2851
— Other Constitutions 2851
(A) U.S.A. 2851
(B) U.K. 2853
— Regulation of a profession 2854
— India 2854
— Grounds of restriction 2854
— Law 2855
— What is a ‘restriction’ upon the freedom of business 2856
— Interests of the general public 2857
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Reasonableness of restrictions 2860
(I) Substantive Reasonableness 2860
— Important fields for restrictions 2865
— Cattle slaughter 2865
— Cinemas, regulation of: 2867
— Competition, control of 2867
— Contract with Government 2868
— Crimes, investigation of 2868
— Directives, implementation of 2868
— Endowments, regulation of 2870
— Essential Commodities 2870
— Foreign Exchange 2871
— Import and export 2871
— Industrial relations, regulation of 2872
I. Prior to 1976 2872
II. After 1976 2873
— Intoxicants, prohibition of 2875
— Labour, regulation of 2879
— Licensing 2879
— Money lending, gambling, etc. 2881
— Marketing, control of 2882
— Monopolies 2883
— Motor Vehicles 2884
— Nationalisation 2884
— Pavement hawking 2884
I. Peddlar, squatter, stall-holder 2885
II. Customary right and fundamental right 2885
— Penal Proceedings 2886
— Price fixation 2886
— Essential Commodities 2887
— Non-essential commodities 2888
— Business carried on by the State 2888
— Public Premises 2888
— Taxation 2889
— When is a total prohibition of a business reasonable 2890
(A) U.S.A. 2890
(B) India. 2891
— The doctrine of res extra commercium 2894
(Art. 19 Contd.)
— Whether the State can create a monopoly right in favour of an individual or individuals 2899
— What constitutes a monopoly 2902
— Right to trade in a commodity in which the State has a monopoly 2903
— Reasonableness of taxing laws 2904 (II) Procedural Reasonableness 2905
— Reasonableness of permits and licences 2907
(I) Reasonableness of permits 2908
— Dwarka Prasad’s case. 2910
— Harishankar’s case 2911
— M.B. Cotton Association’s case. 2911
— Narendra’s case. 2912
(II) The licensing power 2912
(A) U.S.A. 2913
(i) Grant or refusal 2914
(ii) Revocation or cancellation 2914
(B) India 2915
— Grant or refusal. 2915
— Cancellation or revocation. 2916
— When licence fee is prohibitive 2920
— How far can the licensing power be delegated by the Legislature 2921
(A) U.S.A. 2921
(B) India 2922
— Reasonableness of a licence fee 2923
— U.S.A. 2923
— India. 2924
— Exceptions to Art. 19(1)(g) 2926
— Law imposing professional or technical qualifications 2926
(A) U.K. 2926
(B) U.S.A. 2926
(C) India 2927
— Scope for judicial review as to professional qualifica-tions 2929
(A) U.S.A. 2929
(B) India. 2930
— Right to work 2931
— Sub-clause (ii) 2932
— Trading by the State 2932
(Art. 19 Contd.)
(A) U.S.A. 2932
(B) India 2932
— Whether legislation is necessary for the carrying on of a trade or business by the State 2935
— ‘Exclusion, complete or partial, of citizens or other-wise’ 2936
— Limits to the power of the State to create monopoly in its own business 2936
— Whether Protection of Cl. (6) is available when the State carries on the trade through agents 2938
— Cl. (b)(ii) in relation to other Fundamental Rights 2939
— Nationalisation of particular trades 2939
— Legislation by Parliament 2940
— Whether the State can create a monopoly right in favour of a particular individual or individuals 2940
— Art.19(1)(g) and laws of taxation 2941
— Arts. 19 (1)(a) and (g) 2942
— Arts. 19(1)(g), 301 and 304(b), Prov. 2942
— Exclusion of Art. 19 2943
END OF VOLUME 2