DR. DURGA DAS BASU’S
COMMENTARY ON
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
EIGHTH EDITION, 2007
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1
INTRODUCTION
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part I—State
1. State : Definition of 10
2. Constitution 12
(a) Definition and Explanation 12
(b) Constitution and Laws 15
(c) Need for Constitution 17
Scope of Constitutional Law 17
(d) Function of Constitution 18
Part II—The Constitution of India (General)
1. The making of the Constitution 20
— Demand for a Constitution framed by a Constituent Assem-bly. 21
— Cripps Mission and Coalition Government 21
— Muslim League differs 21
— Simla Conference 22
— Cabinet Mission and its scheme 22
— Mountbatten Plan and the Partition of India. 23
2. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 24
— Constituent Assembly of India. 25
— Characteristics of the Cabinet Mission Scheme 25
— The Objectives Resolution. 25
— The Draft Constitution. 26
— Passing of the Constitution. 26
(Introduction Contd.)
3. The Pre-Constitutional Political System 27
— Utility of a historical retrospect 27
— Government of India Act, 1858 27
— The Indian Councils Acts, 1861 and 1892 28
— The Morley-Minto Reforms and the Indian Councils Act, 1909 29
— The Government of India Acts, 1912 and 1915 29
— The Montagu-Chelmsford Report 30
— The Government of India Act, 1919 30
(1) Dyarchy in the Provinces 31
— Main features of the system introduced by the Act of 1919. 31
(2) Relaxation of Central control over the Provinces 31
(3) The Indian Legislature made more representative 31
— Shortcomings of the Act of 1919. 32
(i) Structure Unitary & Centralised 32
(ii) Overriding financial powers and control over official block 32
— The Simon Commission and the Communal Award 33
— The Government of India Act, 1935 33
— The main features of the Government of India Act, 1935 33
(i) The federal scheme 33
(ii) Provincial Autonomy 34
(iii) Dyarchy at the Centre 35
(iv) Distribution of legislative powers be-tween the Centre and the Provinces 35
(v) Non-sovereign character of the Legisla-tures 36
(vi) The Federal Court 37
— Effects of the Indian Independence Act, 1947 37
— Changes introduced by the Indian Independence Act, 1947. 37
(a) Abolition of the Sovereignty and Re-sponsibility of the British Parliament 38
(b) The Crown no longer the source of au-thority 38
(c) Powers of the Governors-General and Provincial Governors 38
(d) Sovereignty of the Dominion Legislature 38
4. Nature of the Constitution of India 39
(i) Drawn from different sources 39
(Introduction Contd.)
— Supplemented by multiple amendments, and practi-cally recast by the 42nd, 43rd and 44th Amend-ments, 1976-78. 39
(ii) The Constitution is written 40
(iii) The lengthiest Constitution in the world 41
(a) Incorporates the accumulated experience of different Constitutions. 41
(b) Detailed administrative provisions included. 41
(c) Peculiarity of the problems to be solved. 42
(d) Constitution of the Units also included 42
— Special provisions for Jammu & Kashmir 42
— Nagaland, Sikkim, etc. 42
(e) Federal Relations elaborately dealt with 42
(f) Both justiciable and non-justiciable Rights included: Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles, and Fun-damental Duties. 43
(g) Consequences of the Constitution being detailed. 43
— Applicability of foreign decisions curtailed. 44
(iv) Flexibility combined with a rigid Constitution 44
— Legislation as supplementing the Constitution. 46
— Reconciliation of a written constitution with Parlia-mentary Sovereignty. 47
— Rigidity: when appears 48
— Flexibility imparted to a Federal Constitution. 49
— Rigidity imparted by the judicially evolved doctrine of ‘basic features’. 51
(v) A federal structure with unitary features 51
— Different types of federal Constitutions in the modern world. 52
— Essential features of a federal polity. 53
(a) Supremacy of the Constitution 53
(b) Dual Government 53
(c) Distribution of Powers 53
(d) Authority of Courts 53
— These essential federal features exist under the Consti-tution of India. 53
— Peculiar features of Indian federalism. 54
(A) The mode of formation 54
— Federation as envisaged by the Govern-ment of India Act, 1935. 55
— Not the result of a compact. 56
(B) Position of the States in the federation 56
(Introduction Contd.)
A State may be eliminated or reformed without its consent. 57
— Reorganisation of States 57
— No federal equality of States 58
— No State excepting Kashmir, can draw its own Constitution. 58
(C) Nature of the polity 58
— No dual citizenship or administration 58
— No dual system of Courts. 60
(D) Strong Central bias 60
— The Constitution provides for enlarge-ment of the federal legislative power in certain contingencies 61
(a) In the national interest 61
(b) By agreement between States 61
(E) Deviations from normal federal ideas 61
— A critique of the Indian Federal System 63
— The working of federalism in India. 65
— Indian federalism as judicially interpreted 66
— There is no general paramountcy of the Union. 66
— State of W.B. v. Union of India 67
— State of Karnataka v. Union of India: a critique. 68
— Survival of Federation in India 69
(vi) A Compromise between Judicial Supremacy and Parliamen-tary Sovereignty 71
— Judicial Review. 72
(vii) Combination of the Presidential and Parliamentary systems of Government 73
— Compared with the Constitution of Eire. 73
(viii) The role of Conventions under the Constitution 74
(ix) Guarantee of social and political equality 76
— Social equality also guaranteed by the Constitution. 76
— Universal franchise with-out communal representa-tion. 76
— Abolition of communal representation. 77
(x) Peculiarities about Fundamental Rights 77
— Fundamental rights subject to reasonable regulation by Legislature. 77
— Fundamental Rights checkmated by Fundamental Du-ties. 78
(Introduction Contd.)
(xi) Legalism of the Constitution 78
— Fundamental Rights and Constitutional Remedies 79
— Judicial review makes the Constitution legalistic 79
(xii) Basic Features 80
— Outstanding and ‘basic’ features of the Constitution. 80
5. Constitution and Private Property 81
— Constitution 84
6. Amendment to the Constitution 84
— Methods of amendment 84
(a) Amendment by a simple majority 84
(b) Amendment by 2/3 majority in Parliament & approval 84
(c) Amendment by a majority of Total membership of each House and a majority of not less than 2/3 of the members present and voting in each House 84
— Scope of amendability 85
Constitution Amendments:
The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952 87
The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954 87
The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955 87
The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955 88
The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956 88
The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956 88
The Constitution (Eighth Amendment) Act, 1959 89
The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960 89
The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961 89
The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961 89
The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962 90
The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962 90
The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962 90
The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963 90
The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963 90
The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964 91
The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966 91
The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966 91
The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966 91
The Constitution (Twenty First Amendment) Act, 1967 92
The Constitution (Twenty Second Amendment) Act, 1969 92
The Constitution (Twenty third Amendment) Act, 1969 92
The Constitution (Twenty Fourth Amendment) Act, 1971 92
The Constitution (Twenty Fifth Amendment) Act, 1971 92
The Constitution (Twenty Sixth Amendment) Act, 1971 93
(Introduction Contd.)
The Constitution (Twenty Seventh Amendment) Act, 1971 93
The Constitution (Twenty Eighth Amendment) Act, 1972 93
The Constitution (Twenty Ninth Amendment) Act, 1972 93
The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972 94
The Constitution (Thirty First Amendment) Act, 1973 94
The Constitution (Thirty Second Amendment) Act, 1973 94
The Constitution (Thirty Third Amendment) Act, 1974 94
The Constitution Thirty Fourth Amendment) Act, 1974 94
The Constitution (Thirty Fifth and Thirty Sixth Amendment) Act, 1975 94
The Constitution (Thirty Seventh Amendment) Act, 1975 95
The Constitution (Thirty Eighth Amendment) Act, 1975 95
The Constitution (Thirty Ninth Amendment) Act, 1975 96
The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976 97
The Constitution (Forty First Amendment) Act, 1976 98
The Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act, 1976 98
The Constitution (Forty Third Amendment) Act, 1977 100
The Constitution (Forty Fourth Amendment) Act, 1978 101
1. Matters relating to right to property 103
2. Preventive detention 103
3. Insertion of a new directive principle 103
4. Election of President/Vice-President Jurisdiction of Supreme Court 104
5. Advice to President by the Council of Ministers 104
6. Powers of courts restored 104
7. Restoration of term of Lok Sabha/Assemblies to five years 104
8. Disqualification of Members 104
9. Promulgation of Ordinances by the President 104
10. Appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 104
11. Form of accounts 105
12. Appointment of Judges of High Courts 105
13. Jurisdiction of existing High Courts 106
14. Powers of the High Courts to issue certain writs 106
15. Powers of superintendence by the High Courts 106
(Introduction Contd.)
16. Deployment of Armed Forces in the States 106
17. Special provision as to election of Prime Minis-ter and Speaker 106
18. Proclamation of Emergency 107
19. Failure of constitutional machinery in States 107
20. Suspension of article 19 during Emergencies 108
21. Suspension of fundamental rights 108
22. Financial Emergency 108
23. Protection of publication of Parliamentary/Legis-lative proceedings 108
The Constitution (Forty Fifth Amendment) Act, 1980 109
The Constitution (Forty Sixth Amendment) Act, 1982 109
The Constitution (Forty-Seventh Amendment) Act, 1984 109
The Constitution (Forty-Eighth Amendment) Act, 1984 110
The Constitution (Forty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1984 110
The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984 110
The Constitution (Fifty-First Amendment) Act, 1984 110
The Constitution (Fifty-Second Amendment) Act, 1985 110
The Constitution (Fifty-Third Amendment) Act, 1986 111
The Constitution (Fifty-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1986 112
The Constitution (Fifty-Fifth Amendment) Act, 1986 112
The Constitution (Fifty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 1987 113
The Constitution (Fifty-Seventh Amendment) Act, 1987 113
The Constitution (Fifty-Eighth Amendment) Act, 1987 113
The Constitution (Fifty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1988 114
The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988 114
The Constitution (Sixty-First Amendment) Act, 1988 114
The Constitution (Sixty-Second Amendment) Act, 1989 114
The Constitution (Sixty-Third Amendment) Act, 1989 114
The Constitution (Sixty-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1990 115
The Constitution (Sixty-Fifth Amendment) Act, 1990 115
The Constitution (Sixty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 1990 115
The Constitution (Sixty-Seventh Amendment) Act, 1990 116
The Constitution (Sixty-Eighth Amendment) Act, 1991 116
The Constitution (Sixty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 116
The Constitution (Seventieth Amendment) Act, 1992 116
The Constitution (Seventy-First Amendment) Act, 1992 117
(Introduction Contd.)
The Constitution (Seventy-Second Amendment) Act, 1992 117
The Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1992 117
The Constitution (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1992 120
The Constitution (Seventy-Fifth Amendment) Act, 1994 120
The Constitution (Seventy-Sixth Amendment) Act, 1994 121
The Constitution (Seventy-Seventh Amendment) Act, 1995 121
The Constitution (Seventy-Eighth Amendment) Act, 1995 121
The Constitution (Seventy-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1999 122
The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000 122
The Constitution (Eighty-First Amendment) Act, 2000 122
The Constitution (Eighty-Second Amendment) Act, 2000 122
The Constitution (Eighty-Third Amendment) Act, 2000 122
The Constitution (Eighty-Fourth Amendment) Act, 2001 123
The Constitution (Eighty-Fifth Amendment) Act, 2001 123
The Constitution (Eighty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 123
The Constitution (Eighty-Seventh Amendment) Act, 2003 123
The Constitution (Eighty-Eighth Amendment) Act, 2003 123
The Constitution (Eighty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 2003 124
The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003 124
The Constitution (Ninety-First Amendment) Act, 2003 124
The Constitution (Ninety-Second Amendment) Act, 2003 124
The Constitution (Ninety-Third Amendment) Act, 2005 125
The Constitution (Ninety-Fourth Amendment) Act, 2005 125
The Sixth Schedule to the Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003 125
7. Concluding Remarks 125
(a) The Cumulative Effect of Amendments 125
(b) The purpose of the Constitution and its Amendments 127
(c) The 39th & 42nd and 93rd Amendments 128
A case for revision of the Constitution, instead of piecemeal amendments. 129
— To codify: A. Conventions. 129
— Privileges of Legislatures. 130
— Implementation of the Directive Principles. 131
— Trend towards the Unitary System. 131
— Separatist forces at work. 133
(i) The Sikhs. 133
(Introduction Contd.)
(ii) The Assamese. 135
(iii) The problem of infiltration from Bangladesh. 136
(iv) Other separatist forces. 137
— Language as a separatist force. 137
— Gorkhaland agitation. 137
(v) Constitutional status to Minority Commission. 140
— Opposition to Uniform Civil Code: Art. 44. 141
— Claim of Hindu converts to other relig-ions. 143
— No minority problem in the international sense. 144
— U.N. Charter. 145
— International Covenant : Art. 1(1) 145
— Art. 27. 145
(vi) Has Parliamentary Democracy failed in India? 146
— Multiple Parties 146
— Absence of free and fair election. 146
— Resort to violence to capture power. 146
— Non-participation of peace-loving mar-ginal voters. 147
— Fall in the quality in the average legisla-tor, and decline of talents in the Leg-islature. 147
— Growth of mushroom parties. 147
— Minority Government. 148
— Lack of political education. 148
— Exit of public morality and honesty. 148
— Resort to Presidential system, no solu-tion. 149
— Source of the Constitutions 150
8. Constitutional Developments 150
1. Breach of Fundamental Right 151
2. Common Civil Code 151
3. Consumer Protection Movement 151
45. Government’s Liability for exercise of excess authority and breach of Fundamental Rights 152
6. Government’s Liability in Tort 153
7. Government’s Liability in Contract 155
8. Lok-Adalats 156
9. Legal Aid Programmes 156
10. Measures for control of Environmental Pollution 157
11. Public Interest Litigation 158
(Introduction Contd.)
12. Upliftment of status of women 159
13. Women and Domestic Violence 161
14. The Problematic Kashmir Issue (Article 370) 161
15. (A) Code of Ethics for Judges of the High Courts and Supreme Court 163
(B) The Code of Ethics 164
9. The Reservation Riddle 165
— Pandit Nehru’s Prediction 165
— Object of the Constitution framers 166
— The Basic approach 167
— Alterations and additions begin 167
— A Pattern forms 168
— From Balaji to Indra Sawhney 169
— The Adamant T.N. Government 169
— Reservations in matters of promotion 169
— The Court 170
— Vinod Kumar case & the 82 amendment 170
— Roster system and accelerated promotions 170
— Consequential seniority 170
— Minority institutions 170
— The latest distortion : a positive discrimination 170
— TMA Pai Foundation case 171
— Islamic Academy Education case 171
— P.A. Inamdar case 171
— The 93rd Amendment to the Constitution 171
— The Result 171
— A volley of questions demanding answers 175
10. Review of the Constitution 176
— Areas for the Review 176
— Recommendations of the Commission 176
Part III—Interpretation
11. Interpretation and Construction 177
— General and Particular Rules for Interpretation 178
12. General Rules of Interpretation 178
(a) The Rule of Expressed Intention 178
1. Ordinarily, words are to be construed in their natural sense 180
2. According to rules of grammar. 180
— Avoiding unconstitutionality. 182
3. Court not concerned with the policy behind a provi-sion. 183
4. Court cannot amend. 184
(Introduction Contd.)
— Defects of exclusively textual interpretation. 184
— Exceptions to literal interpretation 186
— Purposive interpretation 186
(b) A Statute must be read as a whole 187
— Rule of harmonious construction 188
13. Maxims 190
(1) Expressio unius est exclusio alterius 190
(2) Generalia specialibus non derogant 191
(3) Contemporanea expositio est fortissima in lege 191
(4) Ejusdem generis (of the same kind and nature) 193
(5) Noscitur a sociis 194
(6) Ut res magis valeat quam pereat 194
(7) Abundans cautela non nocet. (There is no harm done by great caution). 194
(8) Quando aliquid prohibetur, prohibetur et omne per quod deventitur ad illud 195
14. Presumptions 195
(i) Presumption against alteration of existing law. 195
(ii) Presumption against retrospective operation. 197
Applicable the constitution. 199
Presumption of acting within competence 200
15. Aids to Construction 201
(a) Internal Aids 201
— Title 201
— Preamble 201
— Headings 201
— Marginal Notes 201
— Punctuation 202
— Explanation 203
— Interpretation Clause 204
— Saving Clause 204
— Schedule 204
(b) External Aids 205
— Historical setting 205
— Rule in Heydon’s case: U.K. 205
— Parliamentary history 207
— Admissibility of Parliamentary history 207
— Admissibility of Statement of Objects and Reasons. 208
— Objects and Reasons of Amending Act. 209
— Introductory speech of mover of Bill. 210
— Introductory speech on Bill 210
— Speeches of individual members of the Legislature 210
(Introduction Contd.)
— Speeches of Members 210
— The proceedings in general. 211
— Committee Reports and Reports of expert bodies. 212
— A more liberal use of external materials called for in constitutional interpretation. 214
— Historical materials to be used along with the text of the Constitution. 215
— Previous legislation 216
— Previous Constitutional instruments. 216
— Scope for reference to Government of India Acts in interpreting the Constitution. 217
— Earlier decisions under the Constitution. 218
— Gopalan’s case. 218
— Previous decisions 219
— Admissibility of previous decisions. 219
— Nakkuda Ali and the function of licensing. 220
— Utility of Dictionaries. 221
— Text-Books and Books of authority 222
— Opinion in text-books. 222
— General Clauses Act as an aid to interpretation of the Constitution. 222
— Definitions in General Clauses Act applied to interpret Indian Constitution. 223
— Treaties and international covenants 223
— Doctrine of Judicial Review 225
— Norms of Interpretation 227
16. Special rules for Constitutional Interpretation 229
1. Indian Art. 367(1). 231
2. The Doctrine of Liberal Interpretation 232
— Fundamental principles of constitutional jurisprudence not to be over-looked in making a literal interpreta-tion. 233
— Limits of liberal interpretation. 234
— ‘Spirit of the Constitution’, no aid U.S.A. 234
— Preamble and Directives embodying ‘spirit’ of the Constitution. 235
— Doctrine of ‘basic features’—an aberration. 236
— The Court cannot rewrite the Constitution. 237
— Court cannot overlook language of Constitution when clear and unambiguous. 237
— Court cannot interfere with legislative or administrative policy, except on ground of ultra vires or unconstitutionality. 237
(Introduction Contd.)
— Liberal interpretation of legislative power. 237
3. The doctrine of Purposive Interpretation 239
— For protection of Fundamental Rights. 239
— St. Christopher. 240
— India. 241
4. Judicial activism 241
— ‘Reading down’. 241
— ‘Reading into’. 242
— ‘Affirmative action’. 242
5. The Doctrine of Progressive Interpretation 243
— Constitutional interpretation cannot be static. 243
— Deductions from the doctrine of progressive interpretation. 247
— American Constitution ‘general’. Indian Constitution ‘detailed’. 248
— Flexibility of Indian Constitution lessens scope for judicial review. 248
6. Doctrine of harmonious construction 249
— Doctrine of harmonious construction 249
— Government of India Act, 1935. 250
— The Constitution. 250
— Arts. 25(2)(b) and 26(b) 251
— Arts. 16(4) and 335. 251
— Limits of Doctrine. 253
7. Ut res magis valeat quam pereat (it is better for a thing to have effect than to be made void) 253
— Ordinary statutes. 253
— Constitution. 254
8. Mandatory and Directory Provisions 255
Tests for determining whether a statutory provision is man-datory or directory U.K. & India. 255
— As applied to Constitutional provisions. 257
— U.S.A. 257
— India. 257
— Mandatory : Art. 22(4)-(5). 257
— Art. 62. 258
— Art. 217(3) 258
— Art. 299(1) 258
— Directory: Arts. 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 173(a), 188, 219, Sch. III. 258
— Arts. 77(1), 166(1) 258
(Introduction Contd.)
— Arts. 87(1), 176(1) 258
— Art. 199(4) 259
— Art. 320(3) 260
— Sch. III. 262
9. Relevancy of the Directive Principles in interpreting jus-ticiable provisions of the Constitution 262
— Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights had a common origin. 264
— Difference between Directives and Fundamental Rights. 264
— Directive Principles may be an aid in interpretation of fundamental rights themselves. 266
— Reading into Fundamental rights. 267
— Re. Other Justiciable Provisions 270
— Use of Directives in statutory interpretation suggested. 271
— Arts. 12 and 36. 271
— Art. 51. 272
— Art. 50. 272
— The goal of the State under the Constitution of India. 273
— Social and economic justice. 275
— Judicial activism. 276
10. Interpretation of Guarantees of Fundamental Rights in a written Constitution 277
11. Fundamental Duties as an aid to interpretation 280
(A) Constitutional Interpretation 281
(B) Statutory Interpretation 281
(C) Rules Relating to Distribution of Powers 281
(D) Rules for Determining Constitutionality of Statute 282
(E) Rules Relating to Amendment of the Constitution 282
(F) Applicability of Foreign Decisions in the Inter-pretation of the Constitution of India 282
— Status of a “foreign decree” 283
— Some instances of departures from for-eign con-stitutional precedents. 285
— How far foreign precedents are useful in inter-preting our Constitution. 287
— Art. 12. 288
— Art. 14. 288
— Art. 19. 288
— Art. 20 289
— Art. 21 289
(Introduction Contd.)
17. Landmark decisions of the Supreme Court of India relating to constitution 290
A. Constitutional Mechanics 290
B. Education and the Law 291
C. Election Law 293
D. Environment and the Law 295
E. Equality 298
F. Judiciary and the Law 298
G. Labour Law 299
H. Life: Right to 299
I. Public interest litigation and the Law 300
J. Other Cases Regarding Fundamental Rights 302
K. Reservations-SC/ST 303
L. Women and the Law 305
— Recent development 307
— Marriage registration made mandatory by Apex Court 307
— Sexual Harassment: The Bench on Trial 308
— A judge above contempt 308
— Protective discrimination 310
— Office of Profit Bill returned to Parliament 311
— Tug of war between Parliament & the Supreme Court 311
Introduction—APPENDIX 1
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 313
A. Brief Overview 313
Right to Information Act, 2005: A quick recapitulation… 314
Some important provisions 314
Positive Revelations 314
The Modalities—Application, Appeals and Penalties 314
Exempted Categories 314
Overriding Clause 315
The need to build awareness and mobilize people 315
Dungarpur district shows the way 315
B. Questionnaire 316
1. When did it come into force? 316
2. Who is covered by the Act? 316
3. What does information mean? 316
4. What does the expression “Right to Information” mean? 316
5. What is the procedure for requesting information? 316
6. What is the time limit to get the information? 316
7. What is the fee to be paid for information? 317
(Introduction Contd.)
8. What could be the grounds for rejection of supply of information? 317
9. What are the obligations of public authority? 317
10. What does a “public authority” mean? 318
11. Who are (PIOs) Public Information Officers? 318
12. What are their duties? 318
13. The Central Information Commission: Its formation: 319
14. What is the eligibility and process of appointment of CIC/IC? 319
15. What is the term of office and other service conditions of CIC? 319
16. The term of office and other service conditions of IC. 319
17. How is the State Information Commission constituted? 320
18. What is the eligibility and process of appointment of State Chief Information Commissioner/State Infor-mation Commissioners. 320
19. The powers and functions of Information Commis-sions. 320
20. What is the reporting procedure? 321
21. What is not open to disclosure? 321
22. Is partial disclosure allowed? 322
23. Who is excluded? 322
24. What is the role of Central/State Governments? 322
25. Who has the Rule making power? 323
26. Who has the power to deal with the difficulties while implementing this Act? 323
Introduction—APPENDIX 2
Tables 1 to 20 324-367
Table 1. Facts to start with 324
Table 2. Fundamental Rights 325
Table 3. Fundamental Duties of Citizens 326
Table 4. Directive Principles of State Policy 327
Table 5. Government of the Union 328
Table 6. The Judiciary 329
Table 7. Jurisdiction & seats of High Courts 330
Table 8. Territorial jurisdiction of Benches of CAT 331
Table 9. Languages 332
Table 10. Presidents of India 333
Table 11. Vice-Presidents of India 334
Table 12. Prime Minister of India 335
Table 13. Members of Law Commission of independent India 336
Table 14. Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of India 337
(Introduction Contd.)
Table 15. Chief Election Commissioners of India 338
Table 16. Lok Sabha and its speakers 339
Table 17. President’s Rule in State & Union Territories 340
Table 18. The Constitution Amendment Acts 343
Table 19. Yearwise list of Amendments in Constitution of India by other Amendments Acts 363
Table 20. Intelligence & Security organisations established by the Cen-tral Government 365
THE
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA, 1950
PREAMBLE
SYNOPSIS
1. Other Constitutions 368
2. India 372
3. Amendment 372
4. Object and Scope of the Preamble 373
5. Constitutional interpretation. 374
(A) U. S. A. 374
(B) India. 374
6. Embodies the philosophy and ideal underlying the Constitution. 375
7. The philosophical and legal meaning of the Preamble 378
— The Preamble serves several important purposes 378
8. Use of the Preamble in interpretation of Constitution. 380
9. What is meant by saying that the Preamble is a part of the Constitu-tion 383
— Berubari case 383
— Golak Nath’s case. 384
— Kesavananda’s case. 384
10. “Sovereign” 388
— Membership of the Commonwealth not incompatible with India’s sovereignty 390
11. ‘Socialist’ 394
— Nakara v. Union of India. 394
12. State Socialism or nationalisation. 397
— Excel Wear v. U.O.I. 398
— State of T.N. v. Abu. 398
— a critique 398
13. Socialistic pattern of society 399
14. ‘Secular’ 399
15. Dictionary meaning. 400
(Preamble Contd.)
16. Propositions emerging from Arts. 25-
30. 402
— There shall be no ‘State religion’ in India 402
— Equality of treatment as between all religions 403
— Equal freedom of each individual 404
17. What is not secular. 406
— Art. 14. 406
— Arts. 15-16. 406
— Arts. 19(1) and 25(1). 407
— Art. 25(1) Mass conversion. 407
— Art. 27. 408
— Santosh v. Secy. 408
— Art. 351. 409
— 8th Sch. 409
18. Secularism and Politics 409
— Bommai v. U.O.I, a critique 410
19. ‘Democratic’ 410
20. Democracy 411
21. Political Democarcy. 411
22. A representative democracy. 412
(a) Universal Suffrage 412
(b) The role of the Party system in Indian democracy 413
(c) Free and fair election 413
23. Social and economic democracy 413
24. ‘Republic’ 414
25. ‘Justice’ 416
26. Provisions of the Constitution which are aimed at securing Socio-economic justice 418
27. ‘Justice, Social, Economic and Political’ 418
28. Social Justice 418
29. Function of a Court in India to ensure social justice. 420
30. Social Justice and Natural Justice 422
31. Economic Justice 422
32. Social and economic Justice for women 423
33. Political Justice 424
34. ‘Liberty’ 424
35. ‘Equality’ 427
36. ‘Fraternity’ 428
37. ‘Dignity of the individual’ 429
38. West Germany. 430
39. ‘Unity of the nation’ 430
40. Judicial Review and Judicial Activism 431
41. Basic features and amendment of the Constitution. 431
42. Amendment of the Preamble 433
PART I
THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY
Art. 1. Name and territory of the Union 435
1. Other Constitutions 436
(A) U.S.A. 436
(B) Canada. 436
(C) Australia 436
(D) Switzerland 436
(E) West Germany 437
2. India 437
— Amendment 437
— Effects of Amendment 437
3. Clause (1) 437
— India, a Union of States 437
— Essential features of Indian federation. 438
4. Clause (2) 441
— Territories of the States 441
5. Clause (3) 442
— Membership of the Union and Territory of India 442
6. Difference in status of the States and the Union Territories 443
— Status of Jammu & Kashmir 445
— Extent of ‘Territory’ under International Law 446
— Territorial waters. 446
(i) The littoral or marginal sea. 446
(ii) Inlets. 447
(iii) Straits. 447
(iv) Rivers 447
— Territories as may be acquired Sub-cl. (c) 447
— Modes of Acquisition of Territory 448
(i) Cession 448
(ii) Occupation 449
(iii) Prescription 449
(iv) Accretion 449
(v) Subjugation 449
— When is a territory ‘acquired’ for the purposes of Art. 1(3)(c) 449
(a) Cession. 450
— Masthan Sahib v. Chief Commr. 450
(b) Conquest. 450
— Government of Acquired Territory 451
(Art. 1 Contd.)
(A) U.S.A. 451
(B) Australia. 451
(C) India. 452
— Effects of the transfer of sovereignty upon municipal law relating to private rights: the doctrine of ‘State succession’ 453
— U.S.A. 453
— U.K., India 454
Law applicable to acquired territory 456
Applicability of Art. 1 to Jammu & Kashmir 456
Art. 2. Admission or establishment of new States 456
1. Other Constitutions 456
(A) U.S.A. 456
(B) Australia 457
2. India 457
— Admission or Establishment of a New State 457
— ‘Upon such terms and conditions as it thinks fit’ 458
— Status of the Admitted State 460
Art. 2A. [Repealed] 460
Art. 3. Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States 460
1. Other Constitutions 462
(A) U.S.A. 462
(B) Australia 462
(C) West Germany 462
(D) Government of India Act, 1935 463
2. India 463
— Amendments 463
— Scope of Art. 3 464
— ‘Parliament may by law’ 465
— ‘State’ 465
— Cl. (a) : Formation of New State 465
— ‘Separation of territory from any State’ 466
— ‘Uniting two or more States’ 466
— ‘Uniting any territory to a part of any State’ 466
— Cl. (b): ‘Increase the area of any State’ 466
— Cl. (c): ‘Diminish the area of any State’ 466
— Proviso: ‘Recommendation of the President’ 466
— ‘Referring’ the Bill to State Legislature 467
— “Bill has been referred” 467
(Art. 3 Contd.)
— Whether the Bill may be amended after the views of the State Legislatures’ have been ascertained 467
— Illustration 468
— Expl. I: Alteration of area or boundaries of a Union Territory 468
— Expl. II: ‘Uniting parts of State or Union territory’ 469
— Power to cede territory under the Constitution 469
(A) England. 470
(B) France 470
(C) U.S.A. 470
(D) India. 470
— The Berubari Case. 471
— Effects of reorganisation of territory on existing laws 471
— Applicability of Art. 3 to Jammu & Kashmir 472
Art. 4. Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amend-ment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and Supplemen-tal, incidental and consequential matters 473
1. Other Constitutions 473
2. India 473
— Scope of Art. 4 473
3. Clause (1) 474
— ‘Supplemental, incidental and consequential provi-sions’ 474
4. Clause (2) 475
— Process of amendment not required 475
PART II
CITIZENSHIP
Art. 5. Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution 477
1. Other Constitutions 478
2. India 478
— Commencement 478
— Applicability to Jammu & Kashmir 478
— Scope of Articles 5-8 478
— Citizenship 479
— Citizenship and Nationality 480
— Incidence of nationality. 482
— U.S.A. 482
(Art. 5 Contd.)
— U.K. 482
— India. 483
— “Every person” 483
— ‘Citizen of India’ 484
— Rights and privileges of Indian citizenship 484
— Constitutional duties of citizens 485
— Alien and ‘foreigner’ 485
— Foreigners Act 486
— Rights and Disabilities of Aliens 487
(A) U.K.. 487
(B) U.S.A. 488
(C) India. 490
— Commonwealth Citizenship 492
— Arts. 5-9 492
— Persons who are Citizens of India at the commence-ment of the Constitution 493
— ‘Domicile’ 495
— Domicile of origin. 498
— Domicile of choice. 498
— Factum of residence 498
— Animus 498
— Abandonment of domicile of choice. 502
— ‘Has his domicile’ 503
— ‘Territory of India’ 503
— Domicile in the territory of India, at the commence-ment of the Constitution 503
— Can there be a domicile in a State, in India? 504
— Pradeep v. U.O.I. 506
— Procedure under Cl. (a) 506
— Cl. (c): ‘Ordinarily resident’ 506
— Citizenship of the people of Jammu & Kashmir 507
Art. 6. Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan 510
1. Scope of Art. 6 510
2. ‘Migrated’ 511
3. Cl. (a): ‘India’ and ‘India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935’ 512
4. Cl. (b)(i): ‘Ordinarily resident’ 512
5. Cl. (b)(ii): Migrants from Pakistan and Bangladesh after
19-7-48 512
Art. 7. Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan 513
1. Art. 7: Migration to Pakistan 513
(Art. 7 Contd.)
2. ‘Migration’ 514
3. Nationality, domicile and migration, in relation to married women 515
4. Migration of a minor 516
5. Proviso 517
6. Application to Jammu & Kashmir 517
Art. 8. Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin out-side India 517
1. ‘India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as originally enacted)’ 518
2. ‘Ordinarily residing’ 518
3. ‘Any country outside India’ 518
4. ‘Form and manner prescribed’ 518
5. ‘Whether before or after the commencement of the Constitution’ 518
6. Date from which the registration takes effect 519
7. Arts. 8 and 9 519
Art. 9. Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens 519
1. Disqualification for Citizenship: Acquisition of Citizenship of Foreign State 519
— ‘Foreign State’ 519
— ‘Has acquired’ 520
— ‘Voluntarily acquired’ 520
2. S. 9 of the Citizenship Act 521
— “9. Termination of citizenship 521
3. Determination of the question whether a person has volunta-rily acquired foreign citizenship 521
4. Procedure under s. 9(2), Citizenship Act 524
Art. 10. Continuance to the rights of citizenship 525
Art. 11. Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law 525
1. Other Constitutions 528
(A) Eire 528
(B) Nepal 528
(C) Bangladesh 528
2. India 529
— Law relating to citizenship 529
— Acquisition of citizenship 529
— Other Constitutions 529
(A) U.S.A. 529
(a) Birth in the United States. 529
(b) Naturalisation. 530
(Art. 11 Contd.)
(B) England. 530
— U.K. 530
(C) Australia. 531
(D) Canada. 531
(E) Ceylon. 531
(a) Citizenship by descent. 531
Ceylon. 531
(b) Citizenship by registration under the Citizenship Act, 1948. 531
(c) Citizenship by registration under the Indian and Pakistani Residents (Citizenship) Act, 1949. 532
(F) Pakistan. 532
(G) Bangladesh. 532
— India 532
— Acquisition of Citizenship 532
A. Birth 532
B. Descent 533
— Citizenship by descent 533
— ‘Undivided India’ 535
C. Registration 535
— Citizenship by registration. 535
— ‘Indian origin’ 537
— ‘Ordinarily resident’ 537
— Sub-cls. (a) and (e) 537
— Disqualification for registration 538
— Date from which registration takes effect 538
— Finality of order under s. 5(1) 538
— Form of application for registration 539
—Authority to register as citizens 539
—Certificate of registration. 539
— Special Rules for registration of citizens of some countries : 539
I. Citizens of Singapore 539
II. Citizens of Canada 540
D. Naturalisation 540
— Citizenship by naturalisation 541
— Who may be naturalised 541
— Conditions for naturalisation 541
— Order of Central Government not open to question in Court 542
(Art. 11 Contd.)
— Form of application for naturalisation 542
— Form of Certificate of naturalisation 542
— Declaration of intention to resume Indian citizenship 542
E. Incorporation of territory 542
— Citizenship by incorporation of territory. 542
III. Citizenship of French nationals in Pon-dicherry 542
FORM A—Declaration under the provi-so to sub-paragraph (2) of Para. 3 of the Citizenship (Pondicherry) Order, 1962 543
FORM B—Declaration under para. 4 of the Citizenship (Pondicherry) Order, 1962 544
IV. Citizenship of persons domiciled in Da-dra & Nagar Haveli; Goa, Daman & Diu 544
A. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 544
B. Goa, Daman & Diu 544
V. S. 6A of the Citizenship Act 545
—Migrants from Bangladesh to Assam. 545
—Chakma migrants from Bangladesh settling in Arunachal Pradesh. 547
—Reference to the Assam Tribunal, set up under s. 6A of the Citizenship Act, and its jurisdiction 547
F. Certificate in case of doubt 547
Certificate. 547
‘Doubt’ 547
‘May’ 548
‘Conclusive evidence’ 548
— Revision of orders under the Act by au-thorities other than the Central Gov-ernment 548
— Whether a corporation can be a citizen. 549
(A) U.S.A. 549
(B) U.K. 550
(C) West Germany 550
(D) India 551
— State Trading Corpn. case. 552
(Art. 11 Contd.)
— Bank Nationalisation case. 553
— Loss of citizenship 555
(A) U.S.A. 555
(B) U.K. 556
— Renunciation of citizenship 556
— India. 557
A. ‘Full age’ 557
B. Termination 557
— Termination of citizenship. 557
— Acquisition of citizenship of another country 557
— “Voluntarily acquired” 558
— Effect of obtaining foreign passport. 558
— Rules of evidence and presumption 559
A. Conclusive proof 559
B. Rebuttable Presumptions 560
— Determination of acquisition of foreign citizenship. 560
— Scope of S. 9
(2) 560
— Jurisdiction of Court 562
— Procedure under s. 9
(2). 563
— Whether the determination of the Central Government under s. 9
(2) can be challenged in the Courts 564
C. Deprivation 564
(A) U.K. 564
(B) U.S.A. 565
(C) India. 565
— Sub-secs.
(4)-(6) of s. 10: Committee of Inquiry 566
— Whether certificate of registration granted under s. 5
(1)
(a) may be can-celled 566
— Loss of territory 567
— Foreigners Act, 1946 567
— Jurisdiction of the State Government to expel or deport a foreigner 568
— Delegation. 568
— Onus when a notice under s. 3
(2) of the Foreigners Act, 1946, is served on a person 568
— The problem of infiltration from Bangladesh 570
(Art. 11 Contd.)
— Jurisdiction of High Court under Art. 226 in matters of citizenship 572
— Commonwealth Citizenship 573
— Privileges of Commonwealth citizenship 574
A. The privileges of an Indian citizen in a Commonwealth country. 574
B. The privileges of a citizen of a Commonwealth coun-try in India. 575
— Commonwealth Countries 575
PART III
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
GENERAL
1. A short history of Fundamental Rights 578
— Fundamental rights have evolved out of ‘natural rights’. 578
— Natural rights an off shoot at Natural Law. 579
— Natural rights superior to and inviolable by human authority . 580
— Natural rights inalienable. 580
— Cicero (106-43 B.C.). 580
— Justinian’s Institutes (529 A.D.) 580
— Middle Ages. 580
— U.K. 580
— Magna Carta (1215). 580
— Petition of Right (1628). Bill of Rights (1689). 580
— Act of Settlement (1701). 581
— Dissenters and Levellers (1637-1654). 581
— Milton (1644). 581
— Advocates of Social Contract. 581
— John Locke (1690). 581
— Rousseau (1762). 582
— Blackstone (1765). 582
— Mayflower Compact (1620) . 582
— Virginia Bill of Rights (1776) . 583
— American Declaration of Independence (1776) 583
— French declaration of the Rights of Man (1791) 583
— Thomas Paine (1791-2). 584
— U.S.A. 584
— The Bill of Rights in the American Constitution (1791) 584
— Natural rights transformed into fundamental rights operating as a constitutional limitation. 585
(Art. 11 Contd.)
— Enforced by judicial review . 585
— Adoption of the First Ten Amendments as the ‘Bill of Rights’. 585
— Due Process. 586
— No express provision required for invalidating a law which violates fundamental right. 586
— Post-war constitutions. 587
— Adoption of Fundamental Rights in India 587
— Commonwealth countries. 588
— Furtherance of demand for fundamental rights by the United Nations. 588
— Heritage of Fundamental Rights from Natural Rights. 589
— Effects of incorporating human rights in a written Constitu-tion. 590
2. What is a fundamental right 590
3. The need for Fundamental Rights 594
(A) U.K. 594
(B) U.S.A. 595
(C) India. 596
4. How individual rights are secured under different systems 597
5. Other Constitutions 598
(A) U.K. 598
(B) France. 599
(C) Australia 600
(D) U.S.A. 600
(E) Eire. 601
(F) Japan 602
(G) West Germany 602
(H) Switzerland 602
(I) Canada. 603
— Canadian Human Rights Act, 1977. 604
— Charter of Rights, 1982. 604
6. India 605
— Scheme of Part III 605
— American Bill of Rights general in terms; Indian more specific and detailed. 605
— The Indian Judiciary, as the guardian of fundamental rights, has to work under a shifting canopy. 607
— Doctrine of ‘basic features’. 607
— Extent of application and classification of Fundamental Rights 608
— Some rights available to citizens only, while others extend to all persons. 608
(Art. 11 Contd.)
— Contrary to American precedents, some rights in Part III of our Constitution relate to private action. 608
— U.S.A. 611
Are there any unenumerated Rights under our Constitution? 611
A. The freedom of association 612
B. The right to educate a child in a school of the parent’s choice . 612
C. The right of privacy . 613
— India. 613
A. Case for expansion of enumerated fundamental rights. 614
— Gopalan’s case. 614
— Kharak Singh’s case. 616
— Kharak Singh’s case. 617
— Satwant Singh’s case. 618
— Right to privacy. 619
B. Wire-tapping. 621
— Constitutionality of wire-tapping. 621
— U.S.A. 621
— U.K. 622
— India. 622
— Malkani v. State of Maharashtra 623
C. The doctrine of ‘emanation’ : New dimension of Art. 21 624
— Expansion of Art. 21. 624
— Theory of emanation. 624
— Maneka Gandhi’s case. 624
— Other aspects of expansion 625
— The balance between individual right and collec-tive interests 627
— U.K. 627
— U.S.A. 627
— India. 628
— Fundamental Duties of Citizens 629
— A case for fundamental duties of the individual in India . 629
— Human Rights and Fundamental Rights 629
— Common origin. 629
— Evolution of human rights 630
— Higher law embodied in a written Constitution. 630
— Importation of the concept of human rights into the realm of International law and world or-der. 630
— League of Nations. 631
(Art. 11 Contd.)
— Birth of the U.N. gave new impetus . 631
— U.N. Charter. 632
— Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 632
— U.N. Commission on Human Rights. 633
— Draft Covenants. 633
— Scope of the two concepts compared . 633
— National and international aspects. 634
— Italy. 634
— India. 634
— Fundamental Rights of members of the Armed Forces. 634
— Fundamental Right of Government Servants 634
— Limitations of Fundamental Rights. 634
— Suspension of Fundamental Rights. 634
— Waiver of Fundamental Rights. 634
— Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles. 634
— Fundamental Rights and the Constituent or amen-ding power 634
Art. 12. Definition 635
1. Scope of Art. 12: ‘In this Part’ 635
— ‘The State’. 639
— ‘Unless the context otherwise requires’ 640
— ‘Includes’ 640
— ‘Authority’ 641
— ‘Local Authorities within the territory of India’ 642
— ‘Other authorities’ 643
— A list of ‘other authorities’ coming under Art. 12 644
— Decided cases of various High Courts 647
— ‘Under the control of the Government of India’ 655
2. Fundamental rights, a guarantee against State action 656
(A) U.S.A. 657
(B) India. 657
3. The Concept of State action 657
(A) U.S.A. 657
(B) India. Prima facie 659
4. Whether ‘State’ includes the Judiciary 660
(A) U.S.A. 660
— How far binding on the Judiciary 660
— Judicial decision violating ‘Due process.’ 660
— Violation of equal protection. 661
(B) India 662
(Art. 12 Contd.)
— Applicability of Art. 14 to judicial decisions. 663
— Naresh v. State of Maharashtra. 667
— A judicial decision contrary to fundamental rights is without jurisdiction. 669
5. Whether ‘State’ includes quasi-judicial tribunals 674
— U.S.A. 674
— India. 674
— Ujjam Bai’s case. 675
— Better trend. 679
6. Whether the State itself can claim or enforce a fundamental right 679
— India. 679
— State of W.B. v. Union of India. 679
— West Germany. 680
Art. 13. Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights 681
1. Other Constitutions 686
(A) Eire 686
(B) Japan 687
(C) West Germany 687
(D) Bangladesh 687
(E) Pakistan 687
(F) Sri Lanka 687
2. India 687
— Amendment 687
— Scope of Article 13 688
— Clause
(1) 690
— The Constitution has no retrospective effect 690
— Pre-Constitution laws inconsistent with the Constitu-tion 691
— Effects of constitutional amendment upon an unconsti-tutional statute 692
— Doctrine of ‘eclipse’. 692
— Clause
(2) 693
— Post-Constitutional laws which are inconsistent shall be void ab initio 693
— ‘The State shall not make any law’ 694
— Clauses
(1)-
(2) 696
— ‘Inconsistency’ with or contravention of a fundamental right 696
— Scope of Cls.
(1)-
(2) : Grounds of unconstitutionality 697
— ‘Law’ 698
— ‘Shall be void’ 698
(Art. 13 Contd.)
— The Doctrine of severability 699
— Is there any distinction between unconstitutionality owing to contravention of fundamental rights and lack of legislative competence? 703
— View of Venkatarama Ayyar, J. 703
— Mahendra’s case settles the controversy for good. 704
— Fundamental Rights constitute limitations on legisla-tive power. 707
— Position not different where unconstitutionality relates to a part of a statute. 707
— Mahendra v. State of U.P. 708
— Does an unconstitutional law remain operative as re-gards non-citizens? 708
— Is any law excluded from Art. 13
(2) ? 711
— Constitution Amending Act. 711
— Court’s power and duty to declare a law unconstitu-tional, for contravention of fundamental right 712
— When will the Court decide the question of constitutio-nality of a law 712
— Presumption in favour of constitutionality 712
— Effects of a law being declared unconstitutional 712
— Power of the Legislature when a law is declared un-constitutional 712
— Clause
(3) 712
— Clause
(3): ‘Unless the context otherwise requires’ 712
— Cl.
(3) (a): ‘Law’ 713
— ‘Having the force of law’ 716
— How far Conventions have the force of law, under the Indian Constitution ? 716
— Cl. 3(b): ‘Laws in force’ 716
— Clause
(4) 717
— Amendment 717
— Is a Constitution Amendment Act a ‘law’ within the purview of Art. 13
(2)? 717
3. Judicial Review of the Constitutionality of Laws 717
— Meaning of ‘Judicial Review’ 717
— Meaning of the expression in the U.S.A. and India. 718
— The case for judicial review 720
— Foundations of judicial review of legislation 720
(A) U.S.A. 720
(B) Eire 723
(C) West Germany. 723
(D) Japan. 723
(Art. 13 Contd.)
(E) Bangladesh. 724
(F) Republic of Singapore 724
(G) South Africa 724
(H) India. 724
— But Judicial review is not confined to Arts. 13
(2) and 254
(1). 725
— But scope of review narrower in India than in the U.S.A. 726
— Because the Indian Constitution is more detailed and easily amendable. 727
— For any adjustment of the Constitution to social or economic changes, people took more to Parliament for amendment than to Supreme Court. 728
— Judicial Review as a basic feature 728
— Courts which may determine the constitutionality of a law, and forms of review 729
(A) U.S.A. 729
(a) State Courts. 730
(b) District Courts. 730
(c) Courts of Appeals. 730
(d) Supreme Court. 730
(B) India 731
A. High Court. 731
(a) Under the ordinary law 731
(b) Under the Constitution 732
(i) Application under Art. 226 732
(ii) Proceeding under Art. 228 733
C.P.C. s. 43 734
Cr. P.C. s. 432. 734
B. Supreme Court. 735
(a) Application under Art. 32. 735
— Cases where Petition under Art. 32 will not lie. 736
— Duty of Supreme Court to enforce fundamental right. 737
— Right to compensation. 739
— Under Arts. 132, 134, 136. 740
— Inferior Courts. 740
— Under general law. 740
(a) Declaratory suit. 740
Declaratory action. 740
(b) By way of defence. 741
Defence. 741
(Art. 13 Contd.)
4. Limits to the exercise of Judicial Review of legislation 741
A. Constitutional limitations 742
(A) U.S.A. 742
(B) India 742
— Arts. 100
(2); 189
(2). 743
— Arts. 122
(1), 212
(1) 743
— Umayal Achi v. Lakshmi. 746
— Arts. 111, 200. 747
— Proviso to Art. 3. 747
— Arts. 107
(5), 196
(5). 748
— Arts. 200-201. 748
— Art. 255. 749
— Art. 329(a). 749
B. Intrinsic limitations 750
— Judges declare, but do not make law. 750
— U.S.A. 751
— India. 751
— Motive of Legislature, no consideration for de-termining unconstitutionality. 753
— U.S.A. 753
— India. 753
— Fraud on the Constitution. 754
— Fraud, not necessarily dependent on illicit mo-tive. 755
— In the exercise of the power of judicial review, the Court cannot start with a priori conclu-sions. 755
— State of W.B. v. Union of India. 755
— U.S.A. 756
— India. 756
— Bommai v. U.O.I. 757
C. Self-imposed limits to judicial review 758
(i) The doctrine of adversary litigation 759
A Court can only decide particular cases brought before it. 759
(A) U.S.A. 759
(B) India. 760
(ii) The controversy must be real 761
(A) U.S.A. 761
(B) India. 763
(Art. 13 Contd.)
— Court’s power and duty to declare a law unconsti-tutional in case of violation of fundamental rights 766
(iii) The question must be substantial 769
(A) U.S.A. 769
(B) India. 769
(iv) The doctrine of ‘last resort’ 772
(A) U.S.A. 772
(B) India. 772
— Avoidance of unconsti-tutionality by construction of impugned statute. 773
— Where two alternative con-structions possible 773
— Kedar Nath v. State of Bihar. 773
— But the Court cannot re-write the impugned statute to save it from unconstitutionality. 774
— Kishan Chand v. State of Rajasthan. 776
— Vrajlal v. State of M.P. 777
— Narrowing down a wide provision. 777
— Affecting fundamental right. 779
— Romesh Thappar’s case. 779
— Chintamanrao’s case. 780
— Ram Manohar’s case. 780
— Kameshwar Prasad’s case. 781
— Lacking legislative compe-tence. 781
— Contravention of fundamental rights. 782
(v) The Court will not go beyond what is necessary for the disposal of the particular case. 784
(A) U.S.A. 784
(B) India. 784
— Suraj Mall v. Viswanatha. 785
— Meenakshi Mills v. Viswa-natha. 785
(vi) The petitioner must have a locus standi or ‘stand-ing’ 787
(A) U.S.A. 787
(Art. 13 Contd.)
(B) India. 789
I. The right must belong to the Petitioner 789
II. Such right must be affected by the impugned law 792
III. The injury must be imminent 792
IV. The injury must be to the plaintiff individually 793
— Locus standi of a corporation and its shareholders 798
— Loss of standing 801
I. Estoppel 801
II. Waiver 803
— From locus standi to ‘Public Interest Litigation’ 807
— Conditions to be satisfied 807
— Persons allowed to move. 815
(vii) Whether the Court may deliver an ‘advisory opi-nion’ 816
— U.S.A. 816
— India. 816
— Advisory Jurisdiction. 817
(viii) The pleading must be adequate. 819
(A) U.S.A. 819
(B) India. 819
(ix) The challenge of unconstitutionality must be spe-cific 823
— U.S.A. 823
— India. 824
(x) The question must be raised at the proper stage 824
(A) U.S.A. 824
(B) India. 825
— Res judicata. 826
— Habeas corpus. 826
(xi) The question must be ‘justiciable’ 827
(A) U.S.A. 827
(B) India. 830
A. Provisions made non-justici-able by the Constitution 830
— India. 830
— Directives in Part IV. 830
(Art. 13 Contd.)
— Directives contained in other parts of the Constitution. 831
— Art. 71
(4). 832
— Art. 74
(2): Ministerial advice. 832
— Arts. 81
(2), 329(a). 833
— Arts. 100
(2), 189
(2): Vacancy in Legislature. 834
— Vinod Kumar v. State of H.P. 834
— Arts. 122
(1), 212
(1). 835
— Art. 255. 837
— Art. 363
(1). 838
— Powers exercisable on sub-jective determination of Executive head. 839
— Art. 123
(1); 213
(1). 839
— State of Punjab v. Satya Pal. 840
— Arts. 352, 356, 360. 841
B. Matters which are intrinsically non-justiciable 841
— The problem of ‘political questions’. 842
— Review of Constitution Am-endment Acts 843
(xii) The presumption in favour of constitutionality 843
(A) U.S.A. 843
(B) Eire. 846
(C) India. 846
— Arts. 245-246. 847
— Interpretation. 848
— How the presumption is rebutted 850
— Art. 14. 851
— Art. 19. 851
— Whether evidence can be taken in proceedings to determine the constitutionality of a law 852
— Exceptions to the presumption of constitutionality: Are there any ‘preferred free-doms’? 855
— Art. 19. 857
— Arts. 15-16. 858
(Art. 13 Contd.)
(xiii) Respect for the legislative determination 860
(A) U.S.A. 860
(B) India 861
— Instances of application of the doctrine of respect for legislative determination. 863
(i) In the sphere of legis-lation challenged as violative of equal protection 863
— Equal protection. 863
(ii) In the sphere of regu-latory legislation 864
— Regulatory legislation. U.S.A. 864
(iii) Social and labour legislation 865
— Social and economic legislation. U.S.A. 865
(iv) Regulation of the con-duct of public emp-loyees 867
— Conduct of public em-ployees. 867
(xiv) Respect for long-standing legislative practice 867
(A) U.S.A. 867
(B) India 868
(xv) Doctrine of Stare Decisis 869
— Precedents when and how far binding. 870
— Doctrine of stare decisis in superior Courts. 870
(A) England : House of Lords. 870
— Privy Council. 871
(B) U.S.A. 871
(C) Australia 873
(D) Eire 873
(E) India 873
(xvi) Doctrine of Severability or Separability 879
(A) U.S.A. 879
(B) India 881
— Tests of severability. 882
— Application of the Doctrine of Severability to taxing laws 888
(Art. 13 Contd.)
(xvii) Duty of Supreme Court and High Court to deter-mine constitutionality 888
(A) U.S.A. 888
(B) India. 889
(xviii) The Court must look at the substance of the sta-tute impugned 893
(A) U.S.A. 893
(B) India. 893
— ‘Substance’. 894
— Fraud on the Constitution. 894
— ‘Direct impact’. 897
— Possibility of abuse, no ground for unconstitutionality of statute. 899
— Doctrine of ‘substance’ to be distinguished from ‘pith and substance’. 900
— The Doctrine of gradual and stealthy encroachment 901
— Time does not cure uncon-stitutionality 902
— The Doctrine of Colourable Legislation 903
— Keshavananda’s case. 906
— Whether it is permissible, in determining the consti-tutionality of one statute, to refer to the provisions of other statutes 907
— Art. 13. 907
— Art. 14. 907
— Art. 19. 908
— Krishna Sugar Mills v. Union of India. 908
— Whether it is permissible, in determining the consti-tutionality of a statute, to rely upon the rules made under it 911
— Art. 14. 911
— Art. 19. 912
— Attempts to preclude Judicial Review of legislation 915
— Gopalan’s case 917
(Art. 13 Contd.)
— Effects of a statute being declared unconstitutional. 918
(a) Criminal liability. 921
(b) Official acts. 921
(c) Civil Rights. 921
— Prospective overruling 922
— U.S.A. 922
— Linkletter v. Walker 922
— Subsequent cases, following Linkletter. 923
— Linkletter not followed 925
— Cases outside fundamental rights. 931
— Recent aberrations 931
— India Cement v. State of T.N. 931
— Orissa Cement v. State of Orissa. 931
— Fed. of Mining v. State of Rajasthan 931
— Conclusion. 932
— Whether the declaration of unconstitu-tionality operates as a judgment in rem 933
— Behram’s case 934
— State of Gujarat v. Ambica Mills. 937
— Conclusion 939
— Effect of constitutional amendment on statute declared unconstitutional 939
— Effect of constitutional amendment where amendment expressly retros-pective. 939
— Constitutional amendment to validate a statute judicially declared unconstitu-tional. 940
— Validation of unconstitutional statute by legislation 941
— Retrospective validation not permissible where constitutional limitation stands in the way. 944
— Commrs. for Transport v. Antill. 944
— The West Ramnad case criticised. 945
— Comments on Sadasib v. State of Orissa. 946
— State of Mysore v. Achiah. 947
— Subsequent Court cannot rewrite the
offending statute. 948
Art. 14. Equality before law 948
1. Equality before the Law and Equal Protection 956
— Universal Declaration. 959
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— International covenant. 960
— Canada. 960
— Cook is. 961
— Western Samoa. 961
— Trinidad & Tobago. 961
— Singapore. 961
— Malaysia. 961
— Cyprus. 961
— Eire. 961
— Japan. 962
— Afganistan. 962
— Bhutan. 962
— Pakistan. 962
— South Africa. 962
— Sri Lanka. 963
— Switzerland. 963
— India. 963
— Rules of interpretation. 963
— New dimensions of Equality in India under Art. 14 969
— Non-arbitrariness. 969
— U.S.A. 972
— Natural Justice. 973
— Requirement to state reasons. 976
— Equality of status and opportunity. 978
— Affirmative action needs protective discrimination. 980
2. Equality before the law 982
— Other Constitutions 982
— U.K. 982
(1) Absence of arbitrary power on the part of the Government 982
(2) Equality of all persons in the eye of law 982
(3) Liability of public officials under ordinary law 983
(4) Right of equal access to ordinary tribunals 984
— Eire. 984
— West Germany. 984
— Bangladesh. 984
— Nepal. 984
— International Charters 984
— India 984
— The ideal of equality under our Constitution 984
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Art. 14 as controlled by subsequent provisions of the Constitution 986
— Equality before the Law 987
— Exceptions to Equality before the Law 991
I. Exceptions under the comity of nations 991
(1) Foreign Sovereigns 991
(2) Ambassadors 991
(3) Alien enemies 992
II. Exceptions on grounds of public interest 992
(a) Heads of State 992
(b) Judges 992
(c) Members of Legislatures 992
(d) Trade Unions 992
(e) Military personnel 992
(f) Public authorities 993
— Special privileges and powers of public authorities and officials 993
(A) U.K. 993
(B) U.S.A. 993
(C) India 994
— Constitutionality of s. 197, Criminal Procedure Code 997
— U.K. 997
— India 997
— Abolition of other Privileges 1000
(A) U.K. 1000
(B) India 1000
— Right of equal access to the Courts 1002
— Universal Declaration. 1002
(A) International Charters 1002
— European Convention. International Co-venant. 1002
(B) England 1003
(C) U.S.A. 1004
(D) West Germany 1005
(E) Japan 1005
(F) India 1006
— Justice should be available to all 1008
— Legal aid. 1008
— U.S.A. 1008
(A) International Charters 1008
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; the European Convention 1008
— U.K. 1008
(A-B) England 1008
(C) U.S.A 1009
(D) Japan 1009
(E) India 1009
— Criminal proceedings 1009
— Art. 39A. 1010
— Criteria for giving legal services 1011
— Entitlement to legal services 1012
— Excessive bail as an element of inequality 1013
(A) U.K. 1013
(B) U.S.A. 1013
(C) India 1013
— Excessive fine as an element of inequality 1015
— U.S.A. 1015
— India. 1015
— Constitutionality of law vesting discretion in adminis-trative authority 1015
— Constitutionality of discretionary administrative act 1023
— Subordinate Legislation and Administrative Tribunals 1023
— A. Subordinate Legislation. 1024
— Subordinate Legislation, what it means 1024
(A) U.K. 1028
(B) U.S.A. 1030
(C) India 1031
— Forms of judicial review of subordinate legislation 1033
I. Under the ordinary law. 1034
(a) Declaratory action 1034
(b) By way of defence 1034
(c) Injunction 1034
II. Writs under the Constitution. 1034
(i) Habeas Corpus 1035
(ii) Certiorari 1035
(iii) Mandamus 1035
— Scope of judicial review of subordinate legislation 1037
(a) England and India. 1037
— U.K. 1037
— India. 1039
— The doctrine of Ultra Vires 1042
(Art. 14 Contd.)
A. Substantive ultra vires. 1044
— Ultra vires in relation to taxing power 1053
— No taxation without authority of law 1053
— U.K. 1054
— India. 1055
— Limits of the rule of Substantive Ultra Vires 1058
— Limits of the rule of Procedural Ultra Vires 1076
— Doctrine applicable to all statutory instruments 1076
— Effects of Ultra Vires 1076
— Limits of judicial review of subordinate legislation 1079
— Exclusion of Judicial review 1080
I. ‘As if enacted in this Act’ clause 1080
— U.K. 1080
— India. 1080
— Australia. 1082
II. The ‘conclusive evidence’ clause. 1082
III. The ‘subject to’ clause 1083
— Judicial review of subordinate legislation on constitu-tional grounds 1083
— Application of the Equality Clause of Art. 14 to subor-dinate legislation 1084
— Test of reasonableness as applied to subordinate legis-lation 1085
— General conditions for the validity of subordinate legislation 1086
— Publication of Statutory Instruments 1087
— Non-compliance with the requirement as to laying be-fore Parliament 1088
— Hearing if required for subordinate legislation 1089
— Defect in statutory instrument how far affects operation of the statute 1091
— Omission to exercise rule-making power, how far af-fects exercise of other powers under a statute 1091
— Binding Nature of subordinate legislation 1093
— Administrative interpretation of the Rules 1094
— Sanction for disobedience of 1094
— Conflict between two statutory instruments relating to the same matter 1095
— Revocation of one statutory instrument by another 1096
— Implied repeal by subsequent statute 1096
— Subordinate Legislation—Different kinds of 1097
— Unreasonableness 1099
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Rules made by Courts 1102
— Scheme 1102
— Judicial interpretation of statutory instruments 1103
— Forms of Judicial Review 1104
— Scope of Judicial review of, See under Article 32. 1107
B. Administrative Tribunals 1108
— Administrative Tribunals 1108
(A) U.K. 1108
— Tribunals & Inquiries Act, 1958. 1109
(B) U.S.A. 1109
(C) Eire 1111
(D) Australia 1112
(E) Japan 1112
(F) France 1112
(G) West Germany 1113
(G) India 1113
— What is a ‘tribunal’? 1113
— Administrative Tribunal created under the Administra-tive Tribunal Act, 1985 1116
— What the Administrative Tribunal under Art. 323A can do 1118
— Unconstitutionality of laws. 1118
— Procedure. 1119
— Disciplinary matters. 1120
— Punishment 1120
— Compulsory retirement 1120
— Interlocutory matters. 1121
— What the Tribunal cannot do 1121
I. Jurisdiction of Ordinary Courts, How far ex-cluded by Statutory Tribunals. 1122
— Judicial power may be vested only by express provi-sions 1122
II. Judicial review of administrative action 1127
— What is administrative action 1127
(a) Quasi-legislative 1130
(b) ‘Purely’ Administrative 1130
(c) Quasi-judicial 1131
— Foundations of judicial review of administrative action 1135
(A) U.S.A. 1135
I. Constitutional field 1135
II. Non-constitutional field 1135
(Art. 14 Contd.)
(B) U.K. 1136
(C) India 1136
I. Constitutional. 1138
II. Non-constitutional. 1144
— Forms of judicial review and control of administrative action 1144
(A) U.K.. 1144
I. Statutory remedy 1144
II. Non-statutory remedies 1144
(B) U.S.A. 1145
(C) India. 1145
— Postponement of judicial review by ad-ministrative remedies 1145
(A) U.S.A. 1145
— Exhaustion of administrative remedy U.S.A. 1145
(B) India 1147
— Mandamus 1147
— Exclusion of Judicial review 1152
A. Finality conferred upon executive or quasi-judicial decision by statute 1152
(A) England. 1152
— Factors rendering a Tribunal’s decision out of jurisdiction and a nullity 1153
(B) U.S.A. 1154
(C) India 1155
I. Supreme Court 1158
— Art. 32 1158
— Art. 136 1158
II. High Court 1159
— Art. 226, 227. 1159
III. Civil Courts 1160
B. The ‘Conclusive Evidence’ clause 1162
(A) U.K. 1163
(B) India 1163
— Summary. 1165
C. Other clause excluding judicial review 1166
D. How far judicial review can be precluded by statutory remedy 1166
(A) England 1167
(B) U.S.A. 1168
(Art. 14 Contd.)
(C) India. 1168
— Art. 32 1169
— Art. 226. 1170
— Suit 1173
— Jurisdiction of statutory tribunals 1174
A. Tribunal of limited jurisdiction 1175
B. Tribunal of final jurisdiction 1176
— Non-interference with the exercise of discretio-nary power 1177
(A) England and India 1177
— England. 1177
— India. 1177
— Manner of exercise of dis-cretionary power. 1181
— Excess of power. 1181
— U.S.A. 1197
— Non-interference with subje-ctive satisfaction 1198
(a) Emergency legislation. 1199
— U.K. 1199
— Canada. 1199
— Liversidge v. Anderson. 1200
— India. 1201
— Arts. 352, 356. 1201
(b) Non-emergency legislation. 1202
— Non-emergency legis-lation 1202
(A) England and India 1202
— U.K. 1202
(i) Policy-making decisions 1202
A. Planning and development. 1202
— India. 1203
— Companies Act, s. 237(b) 1203
B. Order of compulsory retire-ment 1206
C. Reference to a Commission of Inquiry 1206
D. Statutory investigation 1207
— U.K. 1207
E. Reference of industrial dispute to Tribunal 1208
(Art. 14 Contd.)
F. Granting of exemption under the (Indian) Minimum Wages Act, 1948 1208
(ii) Where finality is given to the subjective determination. 1209
— Effects of ‘finality clause’ 1209
— U.K. 1211
(a) Public corporations 1211
— India. 1211
(b) Taxation 1212
— India. 1212
(c) Ultra vires order. 1213
— U.K. 1213
— India. 1213
— Errors of fact 1214
— Old Rule 1214
— New Rules 1214
— Errors of Law 1214
— Old Rule 1214
— New Rule 1214
— U.K. 1215
— India 1216
G. Ordinance-making power 1218
— Art. 123 1218
— Jurisdictional fact. 1221
— U.K. & India. 1222
— India. 1223
— Impact of fundamental rights on subjective determination 1223
— Constitutionality of sta-tutory provision excl-uding judicial review 1227
— Contravention of Arts. 32, 226 1227
— Art. 14 1227
— Art. 19. 1228
— Art. 31(2) 1228
— Arts. 276, 301 1228
— Reasonableness of dele-gation of legislative power 1228
— Scope of review of administrative action 1228
(Art. 14 Contd.)
— Ultra vires in relation to administrative orders, in general 1229
— Substantive ultra vires 1230
— Limits of the rule of Substantive Ultra Vires 1232
I. Procedural ultra vires 1236
— Procedural ultra vires. 1236
— The requirement to ‘consult’ 1239
(A) U.K. 1239
(B) India 1240
— Art. 320(3)(c) 1240
— Art. 217(3) 1242
— The requirement to issue notice 1243
— The requirement to hear 1245
— Control of non-statutory ad-ministrative action 1255
— Promissory estoppel 1256
— The doctrine of Promissory estoppel 1260
— Limitations of the doctrine 1260
— The doctrine of legitimate expectation 1260
— Doctrine of legitimate ex-pectation 1267
— Legitimate expectations, when may arise 1268
— U.K. 1272
— India 1272
— Constitutional ground 1273
— Art. 12 1273
— Art. 14. 1274
— Limits of the rule of Procedural Ultra Vires 1289
— Non-statutory administrative action 1289
— Art. 15 1291
— Art. 16 1292
— Art. 29, 30 1292
II. Non-statutory action per se hit by some Articles in Part III. 1293
(a) Art. 19 1293
(b) Art. 21 1293
(c) Arts. 31(1) : 300A. 1294
(Art. 14 Contd.)
III. Judicial Review of quasi-judicial decisions. 1295
— Absence and excess of jurisdiction and erroneous exercise of jurisdiction 1295
— Onus 1296
— Ultra vires and defect of jurisdiction 1297
— Error of jurisdiction 1298
— Effects of ultra vires and absence of jurisdiction 1298
— Refusal to exercise jurisdiction 1301
— ‘Error apparent on the face of the record’ 1301
— Violation of the principles of natural justice 1304
— The Principles of natural justice 1305
— Maximum and minimum of hearing 1314
— How far natural justice requires oral hearing 1317
— Right to be represented by counsel 1319
— Exceptions and exclusion to the requirements of notice and hearing 1321
— Natural justice in purely administrative proceed-ings 1327
— Fraud as a ground for certiorari 1332
— Certiorari on constitutional grounds 1335
— How far can the Courts interfere with administrative findings of fact 1336
(A) U.S.A. 1337
I. Constitutional Field 1337
II. Non-constitutional Field 1337
I. The doctrine of jurisdictional fact 1339
II. The doctrine of constitutional fact 1339
(B) England 1340
(C) India 1342
— Arts. 32, 226 1342
(ii) Appeal under Art. 136. 1346
— Art. 136 1346
(iii) Proceeding under Art. 227 1350
— Art. 227 1350
— Question of fact and of law 1351
(A) U.S.A. 1351
(B) UK & India. 1352
— Natural justice in purely administrative proceedings 1354
— Cases of discretionary power. 1363
III. Cases of subjective satis-faction. 1366
(Art. 14 Contd.)
IV. The constitutional requirement of non-arbitrariness. 1367
— Judicial review of fairness 1368
— Policy decisions 1369
— Mala fides 1372
— Judicial review as a protection against arbitrary action 1377
— U.K. 1377
— India. 1378
Art. 14 (Contd. in Volume 2)
END OF VOLUME 1