Conflict of Laws is a field of law which is not very widely known to the ordinary law practitioner. It has to be considered only if a particular litigation has a foreign element as, for example, when the contract in issue was entered into in another country or was to be performed in another country. This is only one example, and there are numerous other situations where the principles of conflict of laws may have to be applied: if parties were married abroad; if the deceased was domiciled abroad; if the company was incorporated abroad, etc. Resort to the rules of conflict of laws may be necessary in the most diverse situations. This branch of law is likely to be of growing importance in India as there is increasing international trade, more cross-border investment and, as increasingly, more Indians live and settle outside India. This book covers the subject extensively. It considers international conventions in the field, the law in England, the law in some Common Law countries and the law in India. Apart from some provisions in the Code of Civil Procedure relating to the enforcement and execution of foreign judgments, and the laws relating to foreign awards, there are few Indian decisions on the subject. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary to consider the rules of law developed in England and other Common Law countries as well as the international conventions laying down conflict of laws rules in several fields. Such conventions offer guidance to our courts as they lay down what our Supreme Court has called ‘transnational’ rules of law. There is a detailed synopsis at the beginning of each chapter setting out its contents in detail: this should be useful to the busy practitioner. The book should find its place in the library of any lawyer practising Civil Law in India.
Preface ......................................................................................................... vii
Preface to the First Edition ............................................................... ix
Table of Contents ........................................................................................... xv
Table of Cases ........................................................................................... xxvii
CHAPTER 1
Nature and Scope of Conflict of Laws ...................................... 1
1.1
Meaning of Conflict of Laws ................................................. 1
1.2
Basis of Conflict of Laws ....................................................... 3
1.3
Name of the Subject ............................................................. 6
1.4
Issues that Arise in the Conflict of Laws ............................... 7
1.5
Need for Rules of Conflict of Laws ....................................... 9
1.6
Sources of Rules of Conflict of Laws ................................... 10
1.7
Commonly Used Phrases and Words .................................. 13
CHAPTER 2
Characterisation, and the Incidental Question; the
Time Factor ....................................................................... 15
2.1
Meaning of Characterisation ............................................... 16
2.2
Process of Characterisation .................................................. 17
2.3
Position in English Law ...................................................... 18
2.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................... 25
2.5
Position in India .................................................................. 28
2.6
Suggested Approach to Characterisation ............................ 28
2.7
The Incidental Question .................................................... 29
2.8
The Time Factor: Retrospective Alteration of Laws ............ 31
CHAPTER 3
Renvoi .................................................................................... 39
3.1
The Problem ....................................................................... 39
3.2
Possible Solutions ................................................................ 41
3.3
Position in England ............................................................. 42
3.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................... 47
3.5
Position in India .................................................................. 48
3.6
Renvoi: Suggested Solution ................................................ 49
CHAPTER 4
Procedure and Substance ........................................................ 51
4.1
Basic Principle ..................................................................... 52
4.2
Scope of Principle ................................................................ 53
4.3
Procedural Rules ................................................................. 56
4.4
Form of Proceedings ............................................................ 57
4.5
Nature of Remedies ............................................................ 57
4.6
Limitation: (1) Position in England and Some Common
Law Countries ..................................................................... 58
4.7 Limitation of Actions: (2) Position in India ....................... 62
4.8 Parties to Proceedings and Their Capacity to Sue or Be Sued
69
4.9 Procedure During the Hearing of the Suit ......................... 74
4.10 Set-off and Counterclaim .................................................... 80
4.11 Priorities .............................................................................. 80
4.12 Method of Enforcement of Judgements ............................. 82
4.13 Damages .............................................................................. 82
4.14 Interest ................................................................................ 86
CHAPTER 5
Proof and Application of Foreign Law .................................... 89
5.1
General ................................................................................ 89
5.2.
International Conventions .................................................. 90
5.3
Nature of Questions of Foreign Law ................................... 91
5.4
Proof of Foreign Law ........................................................... 91
5.5
Application of Foreign Law ................................................. 97
5.6
Presumption if Foreign Law is Not Proved ......................... 97
CHAPTER 6
Exclusion of Foreign Law ......................................................101
6.1
Generally ..........................................................................
6.2
Basis of the Rule ..............................................................
6.3
Exclusion on the Ground of Public Policy: General ........
6.4
Exclusion on the Ground of Public Policy: Position in
England and Other Common Law Countries .................
6.5 Exclusion on the Ground of Public Policy: Indian Cases ..
6.6 Exclusion of Penal Laws ...................................................
6.7 Exclusion of Foreign Laws Expropriating Property .........
6.8 Exclusion of Other Foreign Public Laws .........................
6.9 Exclusion of Foreign Revenue Laws .................................
6.10 Act of State .......................................................................
CHAPTER 7
Domicile ................................................................................125
7.1
Introduction .....................................................................
7.2
Statutory Provisions in India ...........................................
7.3
Constitutional Provisions in India ...................................
7.4
Domicile of Origin: General Rules ..................................
7.5
Domicile of Origin: Dependents .....................................
7.6
Domicile of Choice ..........................................................
CHAPTER 8
Jurisdiction of Courts ............................................................151
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 153
8.2 Who Can File Suits .......................................................... 154
8.3 Immunity from Suits: Position in International Law, the
United Kingdom and Other Common Law Countries ... 158
8.4 Immunity from Suits: Position in India .......................... 166
8.5 Jurisdiction: Introduction ................................................ 173
8.6 Statutory Provisions Relating to Jurisdiction in India:
(1) General Provisions ...................................................... 174
8.7 Statutory Provisions Relating to Jurisdiction in India:
(2) Special Provisions ....................................................... 176
8.8 Jurisdiction: Immovable Property .................................... 180
8.9 Jurisdiction Over Foreign Intangible Property ................ 185
8.10 Jurisdiction in Personam .................................................. 186
8.11 Jurisdiction in Rem .......................................................... 196
8.12 When Courts Will Decline to Exercise Jurisdiction or Grant
An Anti-suit Injunction ................................................... 203
8.13 Stay of Suits Because of Forum Selection and Arbitration
Clauses ............................................................................. 213
CHAPTER 9
Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Judgments ............223
9.1
Introduction ..................................................................... 225
9.2
Principles of International Law, and International
Conventions on the Subject ............................................. 227
9.3
Position in England .......................................................... 231
9.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ...................... 238
9.5
Statutory Provisions in India ........................................... 240
9.6
Indian Decisions: (1) General ......................................... 243
9.7
Indian Decisions: (2) Conclusiveness of
Foreign Judgments ........................................................... 246
9.8
Indian Decisions: (3) When Foreign Court
has Jurisdiction ................................................................. 248
9.9
Indian Decisions: (4) Judgments on Merits .................... 251
9.10
Indian Decisions: (5) Judgments Which Disregard
International Law or Applicable Indian Law ................... 254
9.11
Indian Decisions: (6) Judgments Where the Proceedings
Were Contrary to Natural Justice .................................... 255
9.12
Indian Decisions: (7) Judgments Obtained by Fraud ..... 257
9.13
Indian Decisions: (8) Judgments Sustaining Claims Founded
on Breach of Indian Law .................................................. 258
9.14
Indian Decisions: (9) Judgments Opposed to
Public Policy .................................................................... 258
9.15
Indian Decisions: (10) Foreign Judgments in Rem ........ 259
9.16
Indian Decisions: (11) Execution of Foreign Judgments 260
9.17
Foreign Judgments in Matrimonial Matters:
International Conventions ............................................... 264
9.18
Foreign Judgments in Matrimonial Matters:
Position in England .......................................................... 266
9.19
Foreign Judgments in Matrimonial Matters:
Position in Some Common Law Countries ...................... 270
9.20 Foreign Judgments in Matrimonial Matters:
Position in India: (1) Law Recommended by the Law
Commission of India ........................................................ 272
9.21 Foreign Judgments in Matrimonial Matters:
Position in India: (2) Indian Decisions ........................... 274
9.22 Maintenance Orders: International Conventions ............. 277
9.23 Maintenance Orders: Position in England, Some Common
Law Countries, and in India ............................................ 279
9.24 Foreign Orders Relating to the Custody of Children ..... 285
CHAPTER 10
Enforcement of Foreign Awards ............................................293
10.1
Introduction ..................................................................... 294
10.2
Position in England (1) General ...................................... 295
10.3
Position in England (2): the Common Law Rules .......... 296
10.4
Position in England: (3) Statutory Modes of Enforcement ...
......................................................................................... 298
10.5 Position in Some Common Law Countries ...................... 302
10.6 The Position in India: (1) General .................................. 304
10.7 The Position in India (2): Enforcement of Foreign Awards by
Suit ................................................................................... 305
10.8 The Position in India: (3) Enforcement of Awards Under The
Arbitration (Protocol and Convention) Act, 1937 .......... 308
10.9 The Position in India (4): Enforcement of Awards Under the
Foreign Awards (Recognition and Enforcement) Act 1961
311
10.10 The Position in India (5): Enforcement of Awards Under the
Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996 ........................... 318
10.11 Recognition of Foreign Awards ........................................ 326
CHAPTER 11
Marriage and Matrimonial Reliefs ........................................329
11.1
Introduction ..................................................................... 331
11.2
Same-sex Relationships and Trans-sexual Marriages ........ 332
11.3
Nature of Marriage .......................................................... 335
11.4
Hague Convention on the Celebration and Recognition of
the Validity of Marriages ................................................. 335
11.5 Formal Validity of Marriages: Position in England ......... 337
11.6 Formal Validity of Marriages: Position in Some Common
Law Countries .................................................................. 341
11.7 Formal Validity of Marriages: Position in India .............. 344
11.8 Capacity to Marry: Position in England .......................... 344
11.9 Capacity to Marry: Position in Some Common Law
Countries .......................................................................... 347
11.10 Capacity to Marry: Position in India ............................... 348
11.11 Consent of Parties: Position in England .......................... 352
11.12 Consent of Parties: Position in Some Common Law
Countries .......................................................................... 353
11.13 Consent of Parties: Position in India ................................ 354
11.14 Polygamous Marriages: Introduction ............................... 355
11.15 Polygamous Marriages: Position in England ................... 356
11.16 Polygamous Marriages: Position on Some Common Law
Countries .......................................................................... 358
11.17 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: General ............ 360
11.18 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in England
......................................................................................... 360
11.19 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in Some
Common Law Countries .................................................. 363
11.20 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(1) Introduction ............................................................... 365
11.21 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(2) Christians ................................................................... 367
11.22 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(3) Hindus ....................................................................... 371
11.23 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(4) Muslims ...................................................................... 374
11.24 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(5) Parsis ........................................................................... 375
11.25 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(6) Special Marriage Act 1954 ........................................ 376
11.26 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(7) Foreign Marriages ....................................................... 378
11.27 Divorce and Other Matrimonial Relief: Position in India:
(8) Other Situations ........................................................ 380
11.28 Maintenance in Indian Law ............................................. 385
CHAPTER 12
Children ................................................................................387
12.1
Introduction .....................................................................
12.2
International Conventions ...............................................
12.3
Position in England: (1) General Rule; Guardianship ....
12.4
Position in England: (2) Legitimacy and Legitimation ...
12.5
Position in England: (3) Adoption ..................................
12.6
Children: Position in Some Common Law Countries .....
12.7
Position in India: Guardianship ......................................
12.8
Position in India: Legitimacy and Legitimation ..............
12.9
Position in India: Adoption .............................................
CHAPTER 13
Mentally Ill Persons ..............................................................421
13.1
Introduction .....................................................................
13.2
International Position .......................................................
13.3
Position in England ..........................................................
13.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
13.5
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 14
Nature and Situs of Property .................................................431
14.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 431
14.2 Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Certain Rights
in Respect of Securities Held With An Intermediary 2002
433
14.3 Position in England .......................................................... 433
14.4 Position in Some Common Law Countries ...................... 442
14.5 Position in India ............................................................... 444
CHAPTER 15
Immovable Property..............................................................451
15.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 451
15.2 Position in England .......................................................... 452
15.3 Position in Some Common Law Countries ...................... 456
15.4 Position in India ............................................................... 458
CHAPTER 16
Transfer of Movables ............................................................459
16.1
Introduction .....................................................................
16.2
International Conventions ...............................................
16.3
Tangible Movables: Position in England .........................
16.4
Tangible Movables: Position in Some Common Law
Countries ..........................................................................
16.5 Tangible Movables: Position in India ..............................
16.6 Intangible Movables: Position in England ......................
16.7 Intangible Movables: Position in Some Common Law
Countries ..........................................................................
16.8 Intangible Movables: Position in India ............................
16.9 Shares and Bonds .............................................................
16.10 Negotiable Instruments ...................................................
CHAPTER 17
Actions of Foreign Governments Regarding Property ...........487
17.1
Introduction .....................................................................
17.2
Position in England ..........................................................
17.3
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
17.4
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 18
Effect of Marriage on Property Rights ...................................493
18.1
Introduction .....................................................................
18.2
International Conventions ...............................................
18.3
Position in England ..........................................................
18.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
18.5
Position in India ...............................................................
18.6
Directions Consequent Upon Divorce ............................
CHAPTER 19
Administration of Estates ......................................................505
19.1
Introduction .....................................................................
19.2
International Conventions ...............................................
19.3
Position in England ..........................................................
19.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
19.5
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 20
Succession to Property on Death ...........................................519
20.1
Introduction .....................................................................
20.2
International Conventions ...............................................
20.3
Position in England: (1) ..................................................
20.4
Position in England: (2) ..................................................
20.5
Position in England (3) ....................................................
20.6
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
20.7
Position in India: General Rules ......................................
20.8
Position in India: Law Applicable to Persons ...................
CHAPTER 21
Trusts ....................................................................................553
21.1
Introduction .....................................................................
21.2
International Convention .................................................
21.3
Position in England ..........................................................
21.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
21.5
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 22
Corporations .........................................................................569
22.1
Introduction .....................................................................
22.2
Position in England ..........................................................
22.3
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
22.4
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 23
Insolvency .............................................................................591
23.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 592
Table of Contents
23.2
International Conventions ...............................................
23.3
Position in England ..........................................................
23.4
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
23.5
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 24
Contracts ...............................................................................613
24.1
Introduction ..................................................................... 614
24.2
International Conventions: (1) General .......................... 616
24.3
International Conventions: (2) Conventions on Agency . 617
24.4
International Conventions: (3) Conventions on Contracts of
Carriage ............................................................................ 622
24.5
International Conventions: (4) Conventions on the
International Contracts for the Sale of Goods ................. 625
24.6
Position in England: General Rules Relating to Contracts ....
......................................................................................... 631
24.7
Position in England: Specific Contracts .......................... 651
24.8
Position in Some Common Law Countries ...................... 664
24.9
Position in India ............................................................... 674
CHAPTER 25
Restitution .............................................................................681
25.1
Introduction .....................................................................
25.2
Position in England ..........................................................
25.3
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
25.4
Position in India ...............................................................
CHAPTER 26
Tort .......................................................................................697
26.1
Introduction .....................................................................
26.2
International Conventions (General) ...............................
26.3
International Conventions in Maritime Law ...................
26.4
Position in England: (1) At Common Law ......................
26.5
Position in England: (2) Statutory Reform .....................
26.6
Position in England: (3) Reliefs .......................................
26.7
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
xxiv
Table of Contents
26.8 Position in India ............................................................... 736
CHAPTER 27
Foreign Monetary Obligations ..............................................741
27.1
Introduction .....................................................................
27.2
Position in England: (1): General Rules ..........................
27.3
Position in England: (2): Application of General Rules ..
27.4.
Position in Some Common Law Countries ......................
27.5
Position in India ...............................................................
27.6
The International Monetary Fund Agreement ................
Index ................................................................................................. 785
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